1 .. _perf_security: 1 .. _perf_security:
2 2
3 Perf events and tool security 3 Perf events and tool security
4 ============================= 4 =============================
5 5
6 Overview 6 Overview
7 -------- 7 --------
8 8
9 Usage of Performance Counters for Linux (perf_ 9 Usage of Performance Counters for Linux (perf_events) [1]_ , [2]_ , [3]_
10 can impose a considerable risk of leaking sens 10 can impose a considerable risk of leaking sensitive data accessed by
11 monitored processes. The data leakage is possi 11 monitored processes. The data leakage is possible both in scenarios of
12 direct usage of perf_events system call API [2 12 direct usage of perf_events system call API [2]_ and over data files
13 generated by Perf tool user mode utility (Perf 13 generated by Perf tool user mode utility (Perf) [3]_ , [4]_ . The risk
14 depends on the nature of data that perf_events 14 depends on the nature of data that perf_events performance monitoring
15 units (PMU) [2]_ and Perf collect and expose f 15 units (PMU) [2]_ and Perf collect and expose for performance analysis.
16 Collected system and performance data may be s 16 Collected system and performance data may be split into several
17 categories: 17 categories:
18 18
19 1. System hardware and software configuration 19 1. System hardware and software configuration data, for example: a CPU
20 model and its cache configuration, an amoun 20 model and its cache configuration, an amount of available memory and
21 its topology, used kernel and Perf versions 21 its topology, used kernel and Perf versions, performance monitoring
22 setup including experiment time, events con 22 setup including experiment time, events configuration, Perf command
23 line parameters, etc. 23 line parameters, etc.
24 24
25 2. User and kernel module paths and their load 25 2. User and kernel module paths and their load addresses with sizes,
26 process and thread names with their PIDs an 26 process and thread names with their PIDs and TIDs, timestamps for
27 captured hardware and software events. 27 captured hardware and software events.
28 28
29 3. Content of kernel software counters (e.g., 29 3. Content of kernel software counters (e.g., for context switches, page
30 faults, CPU migrations), architectural hard 30 faults, CPU migrations), architectural hardware performance counters
31 (PMC) [8]_ and machine specific registers ( 31 (PMC) [8]_ and machine specific registers (MSR) [9]_ that provide
32 execution metrics for various monitored par 32 execution metrics for various monitored parts of the system (e.g.,
33 memory controller (IMC), interconnect (QPI/ 33 memory controller (IMC), interconnect (QPI/UPI) or peripheral (PCIe)
34 uncore counters) without direct attribution 34 uncore counters) without direct attribution to any execution context
35 state. 35 state.
36 36
37 4. Content of architectural execution context 37 4. Content of architectural execution context registers (e.g., RIP, RSP,
38 RBP on x86_64), process user and kernel spa 38 RBP on x86_64), process user and kernel space memory addresses and
39 data, content of various architectural MSRs 39 data, content of various architectural MSRs that capture data from
40 this category. 40 this category.
41 41
42 Data that belong to the fourth category can po 42 Data that belong to the fourth category can potentially contain
43 sensitive process data. If PMUs in some monito 43 sensitive process data. If PMUs in some monitoring modes capture values
44 of execution context registers or data from pr 44 of execution context registers or data from process memory then access
45 to such monitoring modes requires to be ordere 45 to such monitoring modes requires to be ordered and secured properly.
46 So, perf_events performance monitoring and obs 46 So, perf_events performance monitoring and observability operations are
47 the subject for security access control manage 47 the subject for security access control management [5]_ .
48 48
49 perf_events access control 49 perf_events access control
50 ------------------------------- 50 -------------------------------
51 51
52 To perform security checks, the Linux implemen 52 To perform security checks, the Linux implementation splits processes
53 into two categories [6]_ : a) privileged proce 53 into two categories [6]_ : a) privileged processes (whose effective user
54 ID is 0, referred to as superuser or root), an 54 ID is 0, referred to as superuser or root), and b) unprivileged
55 processes (whose effective UID is nonzero). Pr 55 processes (whose effective UID is nonzero). Privileged processes bypass
56 all kernel security permission checks so perf_ 56 all kernel security permission checks so perf_events performance
57 monitoring is fully available to privileged pr 57 monitoring is fully available to privileged processes without access,
58 scope and resource restrictions. 58 scope and resource restrictions.
59 59
60 Unprivileged processes are subject to a full s 60 Unprivileged processes are subject to a full security permission check
61 based on the process's credentials [5]_ (usual 61 based on the process's credentials [5]_ (usually: effective UID,
62 effective GID, and supplementary group list). 62 effective GID, and supplementary group list).
63 63
64 Linux divides the privileges traditionally ass 64 Linux divides the privileges traditionally associated with superuser
65 into distinct units, known as capabilities [6] 65 into distinct units, known as capabilities [6]_ , which can be
66 independently enabled and disabled on per-thre 66 independently enabled and disabled on per-thread basis for processes and
67 files of unprivileged users. 67 files of unprivileged users.
68 68
69 Unprivileged processes with enabled CAP_PERFMO 69 Unprivileged processes with enabled CAP_PERFMON capability are treated
70 as privileged processes with respect to perf_e 70 as privileged processes with respect to perf_events performance
71 monitoring and observability operations, thus, 71 monitoring and observability operations, thus, bypass *scope* permissions
72 checks in the kernel. CAP_PERFMON implements t 72 checks in the kernel. CAP_PERFMON implements the principle of least
73 privilege [13]_ (POSIX 1003.1e: 2.2.2.39) for 73 privilege [13]_ (POSIX 1003.1e: 2.2.2.39) for performance monitoring and
74 observability operations in the kernel and pro 74 observability operations in the kernel and provides a secure approach to
75 performance monitoring and observability in th 75 performance monitoring and observability in the system.
76 76
77 For backward compatibility reasons the access 77 For backward compatibility reasons the access to perf_events monitoring and
78 observability operations is also open for CAP_ 78 observability operations is also open for CAP_SYS_ADMIN privileged
79 processes but CAP_SYS_ADMIN usage for secure m 79 processes but CAP_SYS_ADMIN usage for secure monitoring and observability
80 use cases is discouraged with respect to the C 80 use cases is discouraged with respect to the CAP_PERFMON capability.
81 If system audit records [14]_ for a process us 81 If system audit records [14]_ for a process using perf_events system call
82 API contain denial records of acquiring both C 82 API contain denial records of acquiring both CAP_PERFMON and CAP_SYS_ADMIN
83 capabilities then providing the process with C 83 capabilities then providing the process with CAP_PERFMON capability singly
84 is recommended as the preferred secure approac 84 is recommended as the preferred secure approach to resolve double access
85 denial logging related to usage of performance 85 denial logging related to usage of performance monitoring and observability.
86 86
87 Prior Linux v5.9 unprivileged processes using 87 Prior Linux v5.9 unprivileged processes using perf_events system call
88 are also subject for PTRACE_MODE_READ_REALCRED 88 are also subject for PTRACE_MODE_READ_REALCREDS ptrace access mode check
89 [7]_ , whose outcome determines whether monito 89 [7]_ , whose outcome determines whether monitoring is permitted.
90 So unprivileged processes provided with CAP_SY 90 So unprivileged processes provided with CAP_SYS_PTRACE capability are
91 effectively permitted to pass the check. Start 91 effectively permitted to pass the check. Starting from Linux v5.9
92 CAP_SYS_PTRACE capability is not required and 92 CAP_SYS_PTRACE capability is not required and CAP_PERFMON is enough to
93 be provided for processes to make performance 93 be provided for processes to make performance monitoring and observability
94 operations. 94 operations.
95 95
96 Other capabilities being granted to unprivileg 96 Other capabilities being granted to unprivileged processes can
97 effectively enable capturing of additional dat 97 effectively enable capturing of additional data required for later
98 performance analysis of monitored processes or 98 performance analysis of monitored processes or a system. For example,
99 CAP_SYSLOG capability permits reading kernel s 99 CAP_SYSLOG capability permits reading kernel space memory addresses from
100 /proc/kallsyms file. 100 /proc/kallsyms file.
101 101
102 Privileged Perf users groups 102 Privileged Perf users groups
103 --------------------------------- 103 ---------------------------------
104 104
105 Mechanisms of capabilities, privileged capabil 105 Mechanisms of capabilities, privileged capability-dumb files [6]_,
106 file system ACLs [10]_ and sudo [15]_ utility 106 file system ACLs [10]_ and sudo [15]_ utility can be used to create
107 dedicated groups of privileged Perf users who 107 dedicated groups of privileged Perf users who are permitted to execute
108 performance monitoring and observability witho 108 performance monitoring and observability without limits. The following
109 steps can be taken to create such groups of pr 109 steps can be taken to create such groups of privileged Perf users.
110 110
111 1. Create perf_users group of privileged Perf 111 1. Create perf_users group of privileged Perf users, assign perf_users
112 group to Perf tool executable and limit acc 112 group to Perf tool executable and limit access to the executable for
113 other users in the system who are not in th 113 other users in the system who are not in the perf_users group:
114 114
115 :: 115 ::
116 116
117 # groupadd perf_users 117 # groupadd perf_users
118 # ls -alhF 118 # ls -alhF
119 -rwxr-xr-x 2 root root 11M Oct 19 15:12 p 119 -rwxr-xr-x 2 root root 11M Oct 19 15:12 perf
120 # chgrp perf_users perf 120 # chgrp perf_users perf
121 # ls -alhF 121 # ls -alhF
122 -rwxr-xr-x 2 root perf_users 11M Oct 19 1 122 -rwxr-xr-x 2 root perf_users 11M Oct 19 15:12 perf
123 # chmod o-rwx perf 123 # chmod o-rwx perf
124 # ls -alhF 124 # ls -alhF
125 -rwxr-x--- 2 root perf_users 11M Oct 19 1 125 -rwxr-x--- 2 root perf_users 11M Oct 19 15:12 perf
126 126
127 2. Assign the required capabilities to the Per 127 2. Assign the required capabilities to the Perf tool executable file and
128 enable members of perf_users group with mon 128 enable members of perf_users group with monitoring and observability
129 privileges [6]_ : 129 privileges [6]_ :
130 130
131 :: 131 ::
132 132
133 # setcap "cap_perfmon,cap_sys_ptrace,cap_sy 133 # setcap "cap_perfmon,cap_sys_ptrace,cap_syslog=ep" perf
134 # setcap -v "cap_perfmon,cap_sys_ptrace,cap 134 # setcap -v "cap_perfmon,cap_sys_ptrace,cap_syslog=ep" perf
135 perf: OK 135 perf: OK
136 # getcap perf 136 # getcap perf
137 perf = cap_sys_ptrace,cap_syslog,cap_perfmo 137 perf = cap_sys_ptrace,cap_syslog,cap_perfmon+ep
138 138
139 If the libcap [16]_ installed doesn't yet supp 139 If the libcap [16]_ installed doesn't yet support "cap_perfmon", use "38" instead,
140 i.e.: 140 i.e.:
141 141
142 :: 142 ::
143 143
144 # setcap "38,cap_ipc_lock,cap_sys_ptrace,ca 144 # setcap "38,cap_ipc_lock,cap_sys_ptrace,cap_syslog=ep" perf
145 145
146 Note that you may need to have 'cap_ipc_lock' 146 Note that you may need to have 'cap_ipc_lock' in the mix for tools such as
147 'perf top', alternatively use 'perf top -m N', 147 'perf top', alternatively use 'perf top -m N', to reduce the memory that
148 it uses for the perf ring buffer, see the memo 148 it uses for the perf ring buffer, see the memory allocation section below.
149 149
150 Using a libcap without support for CAP_PERFMON 150 Using a libcap without support for CAP_PERFMON will make cap_get_flag(caps, 38,
151 CAP_EFFECTIVE, &val) fail, which will lead the 151 CAP_EFFECTIVE, &val) fail, which will lead the default event to be 'cycles:u',
152 so as a workaround explicitly ask for the 'cyc 152 so as a workaround explicitly ask for the 'cycles' event, i.e.:
153 153
154 :: 154 ::
155 155
156 # perf top -e cycles 156 # perf top -e cycles
157 157
158 To get kernel and user samples with a perf bin 158 To get kernel and user samples with a perf binary with just CAP_PERFMON.
159 159
160 As a result, members of perf_users group are c 160 As a result, members of perf_users group are capable of conducting
161 performance monitoring and observability by us 161 performance monitoring and observability by using functionality of the
162 configured Perf tool executable that, when exe 162 configured Perf tool executable that, when executes, passes perf_events
163 subsystem scope checks. 163 subsystem scope checks.
164 164
165 In case Perf tool executable can't be assigned 165 In case Perf tool executable can't be assigned required capabilities (e.g.
166 file system is mounted with nosuid option or e 166 file system is mounted with nosuid option or extended attributes are
167 not supported by the file system) then creatio 167 not supported by the file system) then creation of the capabilities
168 privileged environment, naturally shell, is po 168 privileged environment, naturally shell, is possible. The shell provides
169 inherent processes with CAP_PERFMON and other 169 inherent processes with CAP_PERFMON and other required capabilities so that
170 performance monitoring and observability opera 170 performance monitoring and observability operations are available in the
171 environment without limits. Access to the envi 171 environment without limits. Access to the environment can be open via sudo
172 utility for members of perf_users group only. 172 utility for members of perf_users group only. In order to create such
173 environment: 173 environment:
174 174
175 1. Create shell script that uses capsh utility 175 1. Create shell script that uses capsh utility [16]_ to assign CAP_PERFMON
176 and other required capabilities into ambien 176 and other required capabilities into ambient capability set of the shell
177 process, lock the process security bits aft 177 process, lock the process security bits after enabling SECBIT_NO_SETUID_FIXUP,
178 SECBIT_NOROOT and SECBIT_NO_CAP_AMBIENT_RAI 178 SECBIT_NOROOT and SECBIT_NO_CAP_AMBIENT_RAISE bits and then change
179 the process identity to sudo caller of the 179 the process identity to sudo caller of the script who should essentially
180 be a member of perf_users group: 180 be a member of perf_users group:
181 181
182 :: 182 ::
183 183
184 # ls -alh /usr/local/bin/perf.shell 184 # ls -alh /usr/local/bin/perf.shell
185 -rwxr-xr-x. 1 root root 83 Oct 13 23:57 /us 185 -rwxr-xr-x. 1 root root 83 Oct 13 23:57 /usr/local/bin/perf.shell
186 # cat /usr/local/bin/perf.shell 186 # cat /usr/local/bin/perf.shell
187 exec /usr/sbin/capsh --iab=^cap_perfmon --s 187 exec /usr/sbin/capsh --iab=^cap_perfmon --secbits=239 --user=$SUDO_USER -- -l
188 188
189 2. Extend sudo policy at /etc/sudoers file wit 189 2. Extend sudo policy at /etc/sudoers file with a rule for perf_users group:
190 190
191 :: 191 ::
192 192
193 # grep perf_users /etc/sudoers 193 # grep perf_users /etc/sudoers
194 %perf_users ALL=/usr/local/bin/perf.shel 194 %perf_users ALL=/usr/local/bin/perf.shell
195 195
196 3. Check that members of perf_users group have 196 3. Check that members of perf_users group have access to the privileged
197 shell and have CAP_PERFMON and other requir 197 shell and have CAP_PERFMON and other required capabilities enabled
198 in permitted, effective and ambient capabil 198 in permitted, effective and ambient capability sets of an inherent process:
199 199
200 :: 200 ::
201 201
202 $ id 202 $ id
203 uid=1003(capsh_test) gid=1004(capsh_test) gr 203 uid=1003(capsh_test) gid=1004(capsh_test) groups=1004(capsh_test),1000(perf_users) context=unconfined_u:unconfined_r:unconfined_t:s0-s0:c0.c1023
204 $ sudo perf.shell 204 $ sudo perf.shell
205 [sudo] password for capsh_test: 205 [sudo] password for capsh_test:
206 $ grep Cap /proc/self/status 206 $ grep Cap /proc/self/status
207 CapInh: 0000004000000000 207 CapInh: 0000004000000000
208 CapPrm: 0000004000000000 208 CapPrm: 0000004000000000
209 CapEff: 0000004000000000 209 CapEff: 0000004000000000
210 CapBnd: 000000ffffffffff 210 CapBnd: 000000ffffffffff
211 CapAmb: 0000004000000000 211 CapAmb: 0000004000000000
212 $ capsh --decode=0000004000000000 212 $ capsh --decode=0000004000000000
213 0x0000004000000000=cap_perfmon 213 0x0000004000000000=cap_perfmon
214 214
215 As a result, members of perf_users group have 215 As a result, members of perf_users group have access to the privileged
216 environment where they can use tools employing 216 environment where they can use tools employing performance monitoring APIs
217 governed by CAP_PERFMON Linux capability. 217 governed by CAP_PERFMON Linux capability.
218 218
219 This specific access control management is onl 219 This specific access control management is only available to superuser
220 or root running processes with CAP_SETPCAP, CA 220 or root running processes with CAP_SETPCAP, CAP_SETFCAP [6]_
221 capabilities. 221 capabilities.
222 222
223 Unprivileged users 223 Unprivileged users
224 ----------------------------------- 224 -----------------------------------
225 225
226 perf_events *scope* and *access* control for u 226 perf_events *scope* and *access* control for unprivileged processes
227 is governed by perf_event_paranoid [2]_ settin 227 is governed by perf_event_paranoid [2]_ setting:
228 228
229 -1: 229 -1:
230 Impose no *scope* and *access* restrictio 230 Impose no *scope* and *access* restrictions on using perf_events
231 performance monitoring. Per-user per-cpu 231 performance monitoring. Per-user per-cpu perf_event_mlock_kb [2]_
232 locking limit is ignored when allocating 232 locking limit is ignored when allocating memory buffers for storing
233 performance data. This is the least secur 233 performance data. This is the least secure mode since allowed
234 monitored *scope* is maximized and no per 234 monitored *scope* is maximized and no perf_events specific limits
235 are imposed on *resources* allocated for 235 are imposed on *resources* allocated for performance monitoring.
236 236
237 >=0: 237 >=0:
238 *scope* includes per-process and system w 238 *scope* includes per-process and system wide performance monitoring
239 but excludes raw tracepoints and ftrace f 239 but excludes raw tracepoints and ftrace function tracepoints
240 monitoring. CPU and system events happene 240 monitoring. CPU and system events happened when executing either in
241 user or in kernel space can be monitored 241 user or in kernel space can be monitored and captured for later
242 analysis. Per-user per-cpu perf_event_mlo 242 analysis. Per-user per-cpu perf_event_mlock_kb locking limit is
243 imposed but ignored for unprivileged proc 243 imposed but ignored for unprivileged processes with CAP_IPC_LOCK
244 [6]_ capability. 244 [6]_ capability.
245 245
246 >=1: 246 >=1:
247 *scope* includes per-process performance 247 *scope* includes per-process performance monitoring only and
248 excludes system wide performance monitori 248 excludes system wide performance monitoring. CPU and system events
249 happened when executing either in user or 249 happened when executing either in user or in kernel space can be
250 monitored and captured for later analysis 250 monitored and captured for later analysis. Per-user per-cpu
251 perf_event_mlock_kb locking limit is impo 251 perf_event_mlock_kb locking limit is imposed but ignored for
252 unprivileged processes with CAP_IPC_LOCK 252 unprivileged processes with CAP_IPC_LOCK capability.
253 253
254 >=2: 254 >=2:
255 *scope* includes per-process performance 255 *scope* includes per-process performance monitoring only. CPU and
256 system events happened when executing in 256 system events happened when executing in user space only can be
257 monitored and captured for later analysis 257 monitored and captured for later analysis. Per-user per-cpu
258 perf_event_mlock_kb locking limit is impo 258 perf_event_mlock_kb locking limit is imposed but ignored for
259 unprivileged processes with CAP_IPC_LOCK 259 unprivileged processes with CAP_IPC_LOCK capability.
260 260
261 Resource control 261 Resource control
262 --------------------------------- 262 ---------------------------------
263 263
264 Open file descriptors 264 Open file descriptors
265 +++++++++++++++++++++ 265 +++++++++++++++++++++
266 266
267 The perf_events system call API [2]_ allocates 267 The perf_events system call API [2]_ allocates file descriptors for
268 every configured PMU event. Open file descript 268 every configured PMU event. Open file descriptors are a per-process
269 accountable resource governed by the RLIMIT_NO 269 accountable resource governed by the RLIMIT_NOFILE [11]_ limit
270 (ulimit -n), which is usually derived from the 270 (ulimit -n), which is usually derived from the login shell process. When
271 configuring Perf collection for a long list of 271 configuring Perf collection for a long list of events on a large server
272 system, this limit can be easily hit preventin 272 system, this limit can be easily hit preventing required monitoring
273 configuration. RLIMIT_NOFILE limit can be incr 273 configuration. RLIMIT_NOFILE limit can be increased on per-user basis
274 modifying content of the limits.conf file [12] 274 modifying content of the limits.conf file [12]_ . Ordinarily, a Perf
275 sampling session (perf record) requires an amo 275 sampling session (perf record) requires an amount of open perf_event
276 file descriptors that is not less than the num 276 file descriptors that is not less than the number of monitored events
277 multiplied by the number of monitored CPUs. 277 multiplied by the number of monitored CPUs.
278 278
279 Memory allocation 279 Memory allocation
280 +++++++++++++++++ 280 +++++++++++++++++
281 281
282 The amount of memory available to user process 282 The amount of memory available to user processes for capturing
283 performance monitoring data is governed by the 283 performance monitoring data is governed by the perf_event_mlock_kb [2]_
284 setting. This perf_event specific resource set 284 setting. This perf_event specific resource setting defines overall
285 per-cpu limits of memory allowed for mapping b 285 per-cpu limits of memory allowed for mapping by the user processes to
286 execute performance monitoring. The setting es 286 execute performance monitoring. The setting essentially extends the
287 RLIMIT_MEMLOCK [11]_ limit, but only for memor 287 RLIMIT_MEMLOCK [11]_ limit, but only for memory regions mapped
288 specifically for capturing monitored performan 288 specifically for capturing monitored performance events and related data.
289 289
290 For example, if a machine has eight cores and 290 For example, if a machine has eight cores and perf_event_mlock_kb limit
291 is set to 516 KiB, then a user process is prov 291 is set to 516 KiB, then a user process is provided with 516 KiB * 8 =
292 4128 KiB of memory above the RLIMIT_MEMLOCK li 292 4128 KiB of memory above the RLIMIT_MEMLOCK limit (ulimit -l) for
293 perf_event mmap buffers. In particular, this m 293 perf_event mmap buffers. In particular, this means that, if the user
294 wants to start two or more performance monitor 294 wants to start two or more performance monitoring processes, the user is
295 required to manually distribute the available 295 required to manually distribute the available 4128 KiB between the
296 monitoring processes, for example, using the - 296 monitoring processes, for example, using the --mmap-pages Perf record
297 mode option. Otherwise, the first started perf 297 mode option. Otherwise, the first started performance monitoring process
298 allocates all available 4128 KiB and the other 298 allocates all available 4128 KiB and the other processes will fail to
299 proceed due to the lack of memory. 299 proceed due to the lack of memory.
300 300
301 RLIMIT_MEMLOCK and perf_event_mlock_kb resourc 301 RLIMIT_MEMLOCK and perf_event_mlock_kb resource constraints are ignored
302 for processes with the CAP_IPC_LOCK capability 302 for processes with the CAP_IPC_LOCK capability. Thus, perf_events/Perf
303 privileged users can be provided with memory a 303 privileged users can be provided with memory above the constraints for
304 perf_events/Perf performance monitoring purpos 304 perf_events/Perf performance monitoring purpose by providing the Perf
305 executable with CAP_IPC_LOCK capability. 305 executable with CAP_IPC_LOCK capability.
306 306
307 Bibliography 307 Bibliography
308 ------------ 308 ------------
309 309
310 .. [1] `<https://lwn.net/Articles/337493/>`_ 310 .. [1] `<https://lwn.net/Articles/337493/>`_
311 .. [2] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/ 311 .. [2] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/perf_event_open.2.html>`_
312 .. [3] `<http://web.eece.maine.edu/~vweaver/pr 312 .. [3] `<http://web.eece.maine.edu/~vweaver/projects/perf_events/>`_
313 .. [4] `<https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.ph 313 .. [4] `<https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page>`_
314 .. [5] `<https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/lates 314 .. [5] `<https://www.kernel.org/doc/html/latest/security/credentials.html>`_
315 .. [6] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/ 315 .. [6] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man7/capabilities.7.html>`_
316 .. [7] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/ 316 .. [7] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/ptrace.2.html>`_
317 .. [8] `<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwar 317 .. [8] `<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardware_performance_counter>`_
318 .. [9] `<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-s 318 .. [9] `<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-specific_register>`_
319 .. [10] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man5 319 .. [10] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man5/acl.5.html>`_
320 .. [11] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2 320 .. [11] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/getrlimit.2.html>`_
321 .. [12] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man5 321 .. [12] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man5/limits.conf.5.html>`_
322 .. [13] `<https://sites.google.com/site/fullyc 322 .. [13] `<https://sites.google.com/site/fullycapable>`_
323 .. [14] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man8 323 .. [14] `<http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man8/auditd.8.html>`_
324 .. [15] `<https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man 324 .. [15] `<https://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man8/sudo.8.html>`_
325 .. [16] `<https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/libs/ 325 .. [16] `<https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/libs/libcap/libcap.git/>`_
Linux® is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the United States and other countries.
TOMOYO® is a registered trademark of NTT DATA CORPORATION.