1 =============== 1 ===============
2 Pathname lookup 2 Pathname lookup
3 =============== 3 ===============
4 4
5 This write-up is based on three articles publi 5 This write-up is based on three articles published at lwn.net:
6 6
7 - <https://lwn.net/Articles/649115/> Pathname 7 - <https://lwn.net/Articles/649115/> Pathname lookup in Linux
8 - <https://lwn.net/Articles/649729/> RCU-walk: 8 - <https://lwn.net/Articles/649729/> RCU-walk: faster pathname lookup in Linux
9 - <https://lwn.net/Articles/650786/> A walk am 9 - <https://lwn.net/Articles/650786/> A walk among the symlinks
10 10
11 Written by Neil Brown with help from Al Viro a 11 Written by Neil Brown with help from Al Viro and Jon Corbet.
12 It has subsequently been updated to reflect ch 12 It has subsequently been updated to reflect changes in the kernel
13 including: 13 including:
14 14
15 - per-directory parallel name lookup. 15 - per-directory parallel name lookup.
16 - ``openat2()`` resolution restriction flags. 16 - ``openat2()`` resolution restriction flags.
17 17
18 Introduction to pathname lookup 18 Introduction to pathname lookup
19 =============================== 19 ===============================
20 20
21 The most obvious aspect of pathname lookup, wh 21 The most obvious aspect of pathname lookup, which very little
22 exploration is needed to discover, is that it 22 exploration is needed to discover, is that it is complex. There are
23 many rules, special cases, and implementation 23 many rules, special cases, and implementation alternatives that all
24 combine to confuse the unwary reader. Compute 24 combine to confuse the unwary reader. Computer science has long been
25 acquainted with such complexity and has tools 25 acquainted with such complexity and has tools to help manage it. One
26 tool that we will make extensive use of is "di 26 tool that we will make extensive use of is "divide and conquer". For
27 the early parts of the analysis we will divide 27 the early parts of the analysis we will divide off symlinks - leaving
28 them until the final part. Well before we get 28 them until the final part. Well before we get to symlinks we have
29 another major division based on the VFS's appr 29 another major division based on the VFS's approach to locking which
30 will allow us to review "REF-walk" and "RCU-wa 30 will allow us to review "REF-walk" and "RCU-walk" separately. But we
31 are getting ahead of ourselves. There are som 31 are getting ahead of ourselves. There are some important low level
32 distinctions we need to clarify first. 32 distinctions we need to clarify first.
33 33
34 There are two sorts of ... 34 There are two sorts of ...
35 -------------------------- 35 --------------------------
36 36
37 .. _openat: http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/ma 37 .. _openat: http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/openat.2.html
38 38
39 Pathnames (sometimes "file names"), used to id 39 Pathnames (sometimes "file names"), used to identify objects in the
40 filesystem, will be familiar to most readers. 40 filesystem, will be familiar to most readers. They contain two sorts
41 of elements: "slashes" that are sequences of o 41 of elements: "slashes" that are sequences of one or more "``/``"
42 characters, and "components" that are sequence 42 characters, and "components" that are sequences of one or more
43 non-"``/``" characters. These form two kinds 43 non-"``/``" characters. These form two kinds of paths. Those that
44 start with slashes are "absolute" and start fr 44 start with slashes are "absolute" and start from the filesystem root.
45 The others are "relative" and start from the c 45 The others are "relative" and start from the current directory, or
46 from some other location specified by a file d 46 from some other location specified by a file descriptor given to
47 "``*at()``" system calls such as `openat() <op 47 "``*at()``" system calls such as `openat() <openat_>`_.
48 48
49 .. _execveat: http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/ 49 .. _execveat: http://man7.org/linux/man-pages/man2/execveat.2.html
50 50
51 It is tempting to describe the second kind as 51 It is tempting to describe the second kind as starting with a
52 component, but that isn't always accurate: a p 52 component, but that isn't always accurate: a pathname can lack both
53 slashes and components, it can be empty, in ot 53 slashes and components, it can be empty, in other words. This is
54 generally forbidden in POSIX, but some of thos 54 generally forbidden in POSIX, but some of those "``*at()``" system calls
55 in Linux permit it when the ``AT_EMPTY_PATH`` 55 in Linux permit it when the ``AT_EMPTY_PATH`` flag is given. For
56 example, if you have an open file descriptor o 56 example, if you have an open file descriptor on an executable file you
57 can execute it by calling `execveat() <execvea 57 can execute it by calling `execveat() <execveat_>`_ passing
58 the file descriptor, an empty path, and the `` 58 the file descriptor, an empty path, and the ``AT_EMPTY_PATH`` flag.
59 59
60 These paths can be divided into two sections: 60 These paths can be divided into two sections: the final component and
61 everything else. The "everything else" is the 61 everything else. The "everything else" is the easy bit. In all cases
62 it must identify a directory that already exis 62 it must identify a directory that already exists, otherwise an error
63 such as ``ENOENT`` or ``ENOTDIR`` will be repo 63 such as ``ENOENT`` or ``ENOTDIR`` will be reported.
64 64
65 The final component is not so simple. Not onl 65 The final component is not so simple. Not only do different system
66 calls interpret it quite differently (e.g. som 66 calls interpret it quite differently (e.g. some create it, some do
67 not), but it might not even exist: neither the 67 not), but it might not even exist: neither the empty pathname nor the
68 pathname that is just slashes have a final com 68 pathname that is just slashes have a final component. If it does
69 exist, it could be "``.``" or "``..``" which a 69 exist, it could be "``.``" or "``..``" which are handled quite differently
70 from other components. 70 from other components.
71 71
72 .. _POSIX: https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepu 72 .. _POSIX: https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_12
73 73
74 If a pathname ends with a slash, such as "``/t 74 If a pathname ends with a slash, such as "``/tmp/foo/``" it might be
75 tempting to consider that to have an empty fin 75 tempting to consider that to have an empty final component. In many
76 ways that would lead to correct results, but n 76 ways that would lead to correct results, but not always. In
77 particular, ``mkdir()`` and ``rmdir()`` each c 77 particular, ``mkdir()`` and ``rmdir()`` each create or remove a directory named
78 by the final component, and they are required 78 by the final component, and they are required to work with pathnames
79 ending in "``/``". According to POSIX_: 79 ending in "``/``". According to POSIX_:
80 80
81 A pathname that contains at least one non-<s 81 A pathname that contains at least one non-<slash> character and
82 that ends with one or more trailing <slash> 82 that ends with one or more trailing <slash> characters shall not
83 be resolved successfully unless the last pat 83 be resolved successfully unless the last pathname component before
84 the trailing <slash> characters names an exi 84 the trailing <slash> characters names an existing directory or a
85 directory entry that is to be created for a 85 directory entry that is to be created for a directory immediately
86 after the pathname is resolved. 86 after the pathname is resolved.
87 87
88 The Linux pathname walking code (mostly in ``f 88 The Linux pathname walking code (mostly in ``fs/namei.c``) deals with
89 all of these issues: breaking the path into co 89 all of these issues: breaking the path into components, handling the
90 "everything else" quite separately from the fi 90 "everything else" quite separately from the final component, and
91 checking that the trailing slash is not used w 91 checking that the trailing slash is not used where it isn't
92 permitted. It also addresses the important is 92 permitted. It also addresses the important issue of concurrent
93 access. 93 access.
94 94
95 While one process is looking up a pathname, an 95 While one process is looking up a pathname, another might be making
96 changes that affect that lookup. One fairly e 96 changes that affect that lookup. One fairly extreme case is that if
97 "a/b" were renamed to "a/c/b" while another pr 97 "a/b" were renamed to "a/c/b" while another process were looking up
98 "a/b/..", that process might successfully reso 98 "a/b/..", that process might successfully resolve on "a/c".
99 Most races are much more subtle, and a big par 99 Most races are much more subtle, and a big part of the task of
100 pathname lookup is to prevent them from having 100 pathname lookup is to prevent them from having damaging effects. Many
101 of the possible races are seen most clearly in 101 of the possible races are seen most clearly in the context of the
102 "dcache" and an understanding of that is centr 102 "dcache" and an understanding of that is central to understanding
103 pathname lookup. 103 pathname lookup.
104 104
105 More than just a cache 105 More than just a cache
106 ---------------------- 106 ----------------------
107 107
108 The "dcache" caches information about names in 108 The "dcache" caches information about names in each filesystem to
109 make them quickly available for lookup. Each 109 make them quickly available for lookup. Each entry (known as a
110 "dentry") contains three significant fields: a 110 "dentry") contains three significant fields: a component name, a
111 pointer to a parent dentry, and a pointer to t 111 pointer to a parent dentry, and a pointer to the "inode" which
112 contains further information about the object 112 contains further information about the object in that parent with
113 the given name. The inode pointer can be ``NU 113 the given name. The inode pointer can be ``NULL`` indicating that the
114 name doesn't exist in the parent. While there 114 name doesn't exist in the parent. While there can be linkage in the
115 dentry of a directory to the dentries of the c 115 dentry of a directory to the dentries of the children, that linkage is
116 not used for pathname lookup, and so will not 116 not used for pathname lookup, and so will not be considered here.
117 117
118 The dcache has a number of uses apart from acc 118 The dcache has a number of uses apart from accelerating lookup. One
119 that will be particularly relevant is that it 119 that will be particularly relevant is that it is closely integrated
120 with the mount table that records which filesy 120 with the mount table that records which filesystem is mounted where.
121 What the mount table actually stores is which 121 What the mount table actually stores is which dentry is mounted on top
122 of which other dentry. 122 of which other dentry.
123 123
124 When considering the dcache, we have another o 124 When considering the dcache, we have another of our "two types"
125 distinctions: there are two types of filesyste 125 distinctions: there are two types of filesystems.
126 126
127 Some filesystems ensure that the information i 127 Some filesystems ensure that the information in the dcache is always
128 completely accurate (though not necessarily co 128 completely accurate (though not necessarily complete). This can allow
129 the VFS to determine if a particular file does 129 the VFS to determine if a particular file does or doesn't exist
130 without checking with the filesystem, and mean 130 without checking with the filesystem, and means that the VFS can
131 protect the filesystem against certain races a 131 protect the filesystem against certain races and other problems.
132 These are typically "local" filesystems such a 132 These are typically "local" filesystems such as ext3, XFS, and Btrfs.
133 133
134 Other filesystems don't provide that guarantee 134 Other filesystems don't provide that guarantee because they cannot.
135 These are typically filesystems that are share 135 These are typically filesystems that are shared across a network,
136 whether remote filesystems like NFS and 9P, or 136 whether remote filesystems like NFS and 9P, or cluster filesystems
137 like ocfs2 or cephfs. These filesystems allow 137 like ocfs2 or cephfs. These filesystems allow the VFS to revalidate
138 cached information, and must provide their own 138 cached information, and must provide their own protection against
139 awkward races. The VFS can detect these files 139 awkward races. The VFS can detect these filesystems by the
140 ``DCACHE_OP_REVALIDATE`` flag being set in the 140 ``DCACHE_OP_REVALIDATE`` flag being set in the dentry.
141 141
142 REF-walk: simple concurrency management with r 142 REF-walk: simple concurrency management with refcounts and spinlocks
143 ---------------------------------------------- 143 --------------------------------------------------------------------
144 144
145 With all of those divisions carefully classifi 145 With all of those divisions carefully classified, we can now start
146 looking at the actual process of walking along 146 looking at the actual process of walking along a path. In particular
147 we will start with the handling of the "everyt 147 we will start with the handling of the "everything else" part of a
148 pathname, and focus on the "REF-walk" approach 148 pathname, and focus on the "REF-walk" approach to concurrency
149 management. This code is found in the ``link_ 149 management. This code is found in the ``link_path_walk()`` function, if
150 you ignore all the places that only run when " 150 you ignore all the places that only run when "``LOOKUP_RCU``"
151 (indicating the use of RCU-walk) is set. 151 (indicating the use of RCU-walk) is set.
152 152
153 .. _Meet the Lockers: https://lwn.net/Articles 153 .. _Meet the Lockers: https://lwn.net/Articles/453685/
154 154
155 REF-walk is fairly heavy-handed with locks and 155 REF-walk is fairly heavy-handed with locks and reference counts. Not
156 as heavy-handed as in the old "big kernel lock 156 as heavy-handed as in the old "big kernel lock" days, but certainly not
157 afraid of taking a lock when one is needed. I 157 afraid of taking a lock when one is needed. It uses a variety of
158 different concurrency controls. A background 158 different concurrency controls. A background understanding of the
159 various primitives is assumed, or can be glean 159 various primitives is assumed, or can be gleaned from elsewhere such
160 as in `Meet the Lockers`_. 160 as in `Meet the Lockers`_.
161 161
162 The locking mechanisms used by REF-walk includ 162 The locking mechanisms used by REF-walk include:
163 163
164 dentry->d_lockref 164 dentry->d_lockref
165 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 165 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
166 166
167 This uses the lockref primitive to provide bot 167 This uses the lockref primitive to provide both a spinlock and a
168 reference count. The special-sauce of this pr 168 reference count. The special-sauce of this primitive is that the
169 conceptual sequence "lock; inc_ref; unlock;" c 169 conceptual sequence "lock; inc_ref; unlock;" can often be performed
170 with a single atomic memory operation. 170 with a single atomic memory operation.
171 171
172 Holding a reference on a dentry ensures that t 172 Holding a reference on a dentry ensures that the dentry won't suddenly
173 be freed and used for something else, so the v 173 be freed and used for something else, so the values in various fields
174 will behave as expected. It also protects the 174 will behave as expected. It also protects the ``->d_inode`` reference
175 to the inode to some extent. 175 to the inode to some extent.
176 176
177 The association between a dentry and its inode 177 The association between a dentry and its inode is fairly permanent.
178 For example, when a file is renamed, the dentr 178 For example, when a file is renamed, the dentry and inode move
179 together to the new location. When a file is 179 together to the new location. When a file is created the dentry will
180 initially be negative (i.e. ``d_inode`` is ``N 180 initially be negative (i.e. ``d_inode`` is ``NULL``), and will be assigned
181 to the new inode as part of the act of creatio 181 to the new inode as part of the act of creation.
182 182
183 When a file is deleted, this can be reflected 183 When a file is deleted, this can be reflected in the cache either by
184 setting ``d_inode`` to ``NULL``, or by removin 184 setting ``d_inode`` to ``NULL``, or by removing it from the hash table
185 (described shortly) used to look up the name i 185 (described shortly) used to look up the name in the parent directory.
186 If the dentry is still in use the second optio 186 If the dentry is still in use the second option is used as it is
187 perfectly legal to keep using an open file aft 187 perfectly legal to keep using an open file after it has been deleted
188 and having the dentry around helps. If the de 188 and having the dentry around helps. If the dentry is not otherwise in
189 use (i.e. if the refcount in ``d_lockref`` is 189 use (i.e. if the refcount in ``d_lockref`` is one), only then will
190 ``d_inode`` be set to ``NULL``. Doing it this 190 ``d_inode`` be set to ``NULL``. Doing it this way is more efficient for a
191 very common case. 191 very common case.
192 192
193 So as long as a counted reference is held to a 193 So as long as a counted reference is held to a dentry, a non-``NULL`` ``->d_inode``
194 value will never be changed. 194 value will never be changed.
195 195
196 dentry->d_lock 196 dentry->d_lock
197 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 197 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
198 198
199 ``d_lock`` is a synonym for the spinlock that 199 ``d_lock`` is a synonym for the spinlock that is part of ``d_lockref`` above.
200 For our purposes, holding this lock protects a 200 For our purposes, holding this lock protects against the dentry being
201 renamed or unlinked. In particular, its paren 201 renamed or unlinked. In particular, its parent (``d_parent``), and its
202 name (``d_name``) cannot be changed, and it ca 202 name (``d_name``) cannot be changed, and it cannot be removed from the
203 dentry hash table. 203 dentry hash table.
204 204
205 When looking for a name in a directory, REF-wa 205 When looking for a name in a directory, REF-walk takes ``d_lock`` on
206 each candidate dentry that it finds in the has 206 each candidate dentry that it finds in the hash table and then checks
207 that the parent and name are correct. So it d 207 that the parent and name are correct. So it doesn't lock the parent
208 while searching in the cache; it only locks ch 208 while searching in the cache; it only locks children.
209 209
210 When looking for the parent for a given name ( 210 When looking for the parent for a given name (to handle "``..``"),
211 REF-walk can take ``d_lock`` to get a stable r 211 REF-walk can take ``d_lock`` to get a stable reference to ``d_parent``,
212 but it first tries a more lightweight approach 212 but it first tries a more lightweight approach. As seen in
213 ``dget_parent()``, if a reference can be claim 213 ``dget_parent()``, if a reference can be claimed on the parent, and if
214 subsequently ``d_parent`` can be seen to have 214 subsequently ``d_parent`` can be seen to have not changed, then there is
215 no need to actually take the lock on the child 215 no need to actually take the lock on the child.
216 216
217 rename_lock 217 rename_lock
218 ~~~~~~~~~~~ 218 ~~~~~~~~~~~
219 219
220 Looking up a given name in a given directory i 220 Looking up a given name in a given directory involves computing a hash
221 from the two values (the name and the dentry o 221 from the two values (the name and the dentry of the directory),
222 accessing that slot in a hash table, and searc 222 accessing that slot in a hash table, and searching the linked list
223 that is found there. 223 that is found there.
224 224
225 When a dentry is renamed, the name and the par 225 When a dentry is renamed, the name and the parent dentry can both
226 change so the hash will almost certainly chang 226 change so the hash will almost certainly change too. This would move the
227 dentry to a different chain in the hash table. 227 dentry to a different chain in the hash table. If a filename search
228 happened to be looking at a dentry that was mo 228 happened to be looking at a dentry that was moved in this way,
229 it might end up continuing the search down the 229 it might end up continuing the search down the wrong chain,
230 and so miss out on part of the correct chain. 230 and so miss out on part of the correct chain.
231 231
232 The name-lookup process (``d_lookup()``) does 232 The name-lookup process (``d_lookup()``) does *not* try to prevent this
233 from happening, but only to detect when it hap 233 from happening, but only to detect when it happens.
234 ``rename_lock`` is a seqlock that is updated w 234 ``rename_lock`` is a seqlock that is updated whenever any dentry is
235 renamed. If ``d_lookup`` finds that a rename 235 renamed. If ``d_lookup`` finds that a rename happened while it
236 unsuccessfully scanned a chain in the hash tab 236 unsuccessfully scanned a chain in the hash table, it simply tries
237 again. 237 again.
238 238
239 ``rename_lock`` is also used to detect and def 239 ``rename_lock`` is also used to detect and defend against potential attacks
240 against ``LOOKUP_BENEATH`` and ``LOOKUP_IN_ROO 240 against ``LOOKUP_BENEATH`` and ``LOOKUP_IN_ROOT`` when resolving ".." (where
241 the parent directory is moved outside the root 241 the parent directory is moved outside the root, bypassing the ``path_equal()``
242 check). If ``rename_lock`` is updated during t 242 check). If ``rename_lock`` is updated during the lookup and the path encounters
243 a "..", a potential attack occurred and ``hand 243 a "..", a potential attack occurred and ``handle_dots()`` will bail out with
244 ``-EAGAIN``. 244 ``-EAGAIN``.
245 245
246 inode->i_rwsem 246 inode->i_rwsem
247 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 247 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
248 248
249 ``i_rwsem`` is a read/write semaphore that ser 249 ``i_rwsem`` is a read/write semaphore that serializes all changes to a particular
250 directory. This ensures that, for example, an 250 directory. This ensures that, for example, an ``unlink()`` and a ``rename()``
251 cannot both happen at the same time. It also 251 cannot both happen at the same time. It also keeps the directory
252 stable while the filesystem is asked to look u 252 stable while the filesystem is asked to look up a name that is not
253 currently in the dcache or, optionally, when t 253 currently in the dcache or, optionally, when the list of entries in a
254 directory is being retrieved with ``readdir()` 254 directory is being retrieved with ``readdir()``.
255 255
256 This has a complementary role to that of ``d_l 256 This has a complementary role to that of ``d_lock``: ``i_rwsem`` on a
257 directory protects all of the names in that di 257 directory protects all of the names in that directory, while ``d_lock``
258 on a name protects just one name in a director 258 on a name protects just one name in a directory. Most changes to the
259 dcache hold ``i_rwsem`` on the relevant direct 259 dcache hold ``i_rwsem`` on the relevant directory inode and briefly take
260 ``d_lock`` on one or more the dentries while t 260 ``d_lock`` on one or more the dentries while the change happens. One
261 exception is when idle dentries are removed fr 261 exception is when idle dentries are removed from the dcache due to
262 memory pressure. This uses ``d_lock``, but `` 262 memory pressure. This uses ``d_lock``, but ``i_rwsem`` plays no role.
263 263
264 The semaphore affects pathname lookup in two d 264 The semaphore affects pathname lookup in two distinct ways. Firstly it
265 prevents changes during lookup of a name in a 265 prevents changes during lookup of a name in a directory. ``walk_component()`` uses
266 ``lookup_fast()`` first which, in turn, checks 266 ``lookup_fast()`` first which, in turn, checks to see if the name is in the cache,
267 using only ``d_lock`` locking. If the name is 267 using only ``d_lock`` locking. If the name isn't found, then ``walk_component()``
268 falls back to ``lookup_slow()`` which takes a 268 falls back to ``lookup_slow()`` which takes a shared lock on ``i_rwsem``, checks again that
269 the name isn't in the cache, and then calls in 269 the name isn't in the cache, and then calls in to the filesystem to get a
270 definitive answer. A new dentry will be added 270 definitive answer. A new dentry will be added to the cache regardless of
271 the result. 271 the result.
272 272
273 Secondly, when pathname lookup reaches the fin 273 Secondly, when pathname lookup reaches the final component, it will
274 sometimes need to take an exclusive lock on `` 274 sometimes need to take an exclusive lock on ``i_rwsem`` before performing the last lookup so
275 that the required exclusion can be achieved. 275 that the required exclusion can be achieved. How path lookup chooses
276 to take, or not take, ``i_rwsem`` is one of th 276 to take, or not take, ``i_rwsem`` is one of the
277 issues addressed in a subsequent section. 277 issues addressed in a subsequent section.
278 278
279 If two threads attempt to look up the same nam 279 If two threads attempt to look up the same name at the same time - a
280 name that is not yet in the dcache - the share 280 name that is not yet in the dcache - the shared lock on ``i_rwsem`` will
281 not prevent them both adding new dentries with 281 not prevent them both adding new dentries with the same name. As this
282 would result in confusion an extra level of in 282 would result in confusion an extra level of interlocking is used,
283 based around a secondary hash table (``in_look 283 based around a secondary hash table (``in_lookup_hashtable``) and a
284 per-dentry flag bit (``DCACHE_PAR_LOOKUP``). 284 per-dentry flag bit (``DCACHE_PAR_LOOKUP``).
285 285
286 To add a new dentry to the cache while only ho 286 To add a new dentry to the cache while only holding a shared lock on
287 ``i_rwsem``, a thread must call ``d_alloc_para 287 ``i_rwsem``, a thread must call ``d_alloc_parallel()``. This allocates a
288 dentry, stores the required name and parent in 288 dentry, stores the required name and parent in it, checks if there
289 is already a matching dentry in the primary or 289 is already a matching dentry in the primary or secondary hash
290 tables, and if not, stores the newly allocated 290 tables, and if not, stores the newly allocated dentry in the secondary
291 hash table, with ``DCACHE_PAR_LOOKUP`` set. 291 hash table, with ``DCACHE_PAR_LOOKUP`` set.
292 292
293 If a matching dentry was found in the primary 293 If a matching dentry was found in the primary hash table then that is
294 returned and the caller can know that it lost 294 returned and the caller can know that it lost a race with some other
295 thread adding the entry. If no matching dentr 295 thread adding the entry. If no matching dentry is found in either
296 cache, the newly allocated dentry is returned 296 cache, the newly allocated dentry is returned and the caller can
297 detect this from the presence of ``DCACHE_PAR_ 297 detect this from the presence of ``DCACHE_PAR_LOOKUP``. In this case it
298 knows that it has won any race and now is resp 298 knows that it has won any race and now is responsible for asking the
299 filesystem to perform the lookup and find the 299 filesystem to perform the lookup and find the matching inode. When
300 the lookup is complete, it must call ``d_looku 300 the lookup is complete, it must call ``d_lookup_done()`` which clears
301 the flag and does some other house keeping, in 301 the flag and does some other house keeping, including removing the
302 dentry from the secondary hash table - it will 302 dentry from the secondary hash table - it will normally have been
303 added to the primary hash table already. Note 303 added to the primary hash table already. Note that a ``struct
304 waitqueue_head`` is passed to ``d_alloc_parall 304 waitqueue_head`` is passed to ``d_alloc_parallel()``, and
305 ``d_lookup_done()`` must be called while this 305 ``d_lookup_done()`` must be called while this ``waitqueue_head`` is still
306 in scope. 306 in scope.
307 307
308 If a matching dentry is found in the secondary 308 If a matching dentry is found in the secondary hash table,
309 ``d_alloc_parallel()`` has a little more work 309 ``d_alloc_parallel()`` has a little more work to do. It first waits for
310 ``DCACHE_PAR_LOOKUP`` to be cleared, using a w 310 ``DCACHE_PAR_LOOKUP`` to be cleared, using a wait_queue that was passed
311 to the instance of ``d_alloc_parallel()`` that 311 to the instance of ``d_alloc_parallel()`` that won the race and that
312 will be woken by the call to ``d_lookup_done() 312 will be woken by the call to ``d_lookup_done()``. It then checks to see
313 if the dentry has now been added to the primar 313 if the dentry has now been added to the primary hash table. If it
314 has, the dentry is returned and the caller jus 314 has, the dentry is returned and the caller just sees that it lost any
315 race. If it hasn't been added to the primary 315 race. If it hasn't been added to the primary hash table, the most
316 likely explanation is that some other dentry w 316 likely explanation is that some other dentry was added instead using
317 ``d_splice_alias()``. In any case, ``d_alloc_ 317 ``d_splice_alias()``. In any case, ``d_alloc_parallel()`` repeats all the
318 look ups from the start and will normally retu 318 look ups from the start and will normally return something from the
319 primary hash table. 319 primary hash table.
320 320
321 mnt->mnt_count 321 mnt->mnt_count
322 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 322 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
323 323
324 ``mnt_count`` is a per-CPU reference counter o 324 ``mnt_count`` is a per-CPU reference counter on "``mount``" structures.
325 Per-CPU here means that incrementing the count 325 Per-CPU here means that incrementing the count is cheap as it only
326 uses CPU-local memory, but checking if the cou 326 uses CPU-local memory, but checking if the count is zero is expensive as
327 it needs to check with every CPU. Taking a `` 327 it needs to check with every CPU. Taking a ``mnt_count`` reference
328 prevents the mount structure from disappearing 328 prevents the mount structure from disappearing as the result of regular
329 unmount operations, but does not prevent a "la 329 unmount operations, but does not prevent a "lazy" unmount. So holding
330 ``mnt_count`` doesn't ensure that the mount re 330 ``mnt_count`` doesn't ensure that the mount remains in the namespace and,
331 in particular, doesn't stabilize the link to t 331 in particular, doesn't stabilize the link to the mounted-on dentry. It
332 does, however, ensure that the ``mount`` data 332 does, however, ensure that the ``mount`` data structure remains coherent,
333 and it provides a reference to the root dentry 333 and it provides a reference to the root dentry of the mounted
334 filesystem. So a reference through ``->mnt_co 334 filesystem. So a reference through ``->mnt_count`` provides a stable
335 reference to the mounted dentry, but not the m 335 reference to the mounted dentry, but not the mounted-on dentry.
336 336
337 mount_lock 337 mount_lock
338 ~~~~~~~~~~ 338 ~~~~~~~~~~
339 339
340 ``mount_lock`` is a global seqlock, a bit like 340 ``mount_lock`` is a global seqlock, a bit like ``rename_lock``. It can be used to
341 check if any change has been made to any mount 341 check if any change has been made to any mount points.
342 342
343 While walking down the tree (away from the roo 343 While walking down the tree (away from the root) this lock is used when
344 crossing a mount point to check that the cross 344 crossing a mount point to check that the crossing was safe. That is,
345 the value in the seqlock is read, then the cod 345 the value in the seqlock is read, then the code finds the mount that
346 is mounted on the current directory, if there 346 is mounted on the current directory, if there is one, and increments
347 the ``mnt_count``. Finally the value in ``mou 347 the ``mnt_count``. Finally the value in ``mount_lock`` is checked against
348 the old value. If there is no change, then th 348 the old value. If there is no change, then the crossing was safe. If there
349 was a change, the ``mnt_count`` is decremented 349 was a change, the ``mnt_count`` is decremented and the whole process is
350 retried. 350 retried.
351 351
352 When walking up the tree (towards the root) by 352 When walking up the tree (towards the root) by following a ".." link,
353 a little more care is needed. In this case th 353 a little more care is needed. In this case the seqlock (which
354 contains both a counter and a spinlock) is ful 354 contains both a counter and a spinlock) is fully locked to prevent
355 any changes to any mount points while stepping 355 any changes to any mount points while stepping up. This locking is
356 needed to stabilize the link to the mounted-on 356 needed to stabilize the link to the mounted-on dentry, which the
357 refcount on the mount itself doesn't ensure. 357 refcount on the mount itself doesn't ensure.
358 358
359 ``mount_lock`` is also used to detect and defe 359 ``mount_lock`` is also used to detect and defend against potential attacks
360 against ``LOOKUP_BENEATH`` and ``LOOKUP_IN_ROO 360 against ``LOOKUP_BENEATH`` and ``LOOKUP_IN_ROOT`` when resolving ".." (where
361 the parent directory is moved outside the root 361 the parent directory is moved outside the root, bypassing the ``path_equal()``
362 check). If ``mount_lock`` is updated during th 362 check). If ``mount_lock`` is updated during the lookup and the path encounters
363 a "..", a potential attack occurred and ``hand 363 a "..", a potential attack occurred and ``handle_dots()`` will bail out with
364 ``-EAGAIN``. 364 ``-EAGAIN``.
365 365
366 RCU 366 RCU
367 ~~~ 367 ~~~
368 368
369 Finally the global (but extremely lightweight) 369 Finally the global (but extremely lightweight) RCU read lock is held
370 from time to time to ensure certain data struc 370 from time to time to ensure certain data structures don't get freed
371 unexpectedly. 371 unexpectedly.
372 372
373 In particular it is held while scanning chains 373 In particular it is held while scanning chains in the dcache hash
374 table, and the mount point hash table. 374 table, and the mount point hash table.
375 375
376 Bringing it together with ``struct nameidata`` 376 Bringing it together with ``struct nameidata``
377 ---------------------------------------------- 377 ----------------------------------------------
378 378
379 .. _First edition Unix: https://minnie.tuhs.or 379 .. _First edition Unix: https://minnie.tuhs.org/cgi-bin/utree.pl?file=V1/u2.s
380 380
381 Throughout the process of walking a path, the 381 Throughout the process of walking a path, the current status is stored
382 in a ``struct nameidata``, "namei" being the t 382 in a ``struct nameidata``, "namei" being the traditional name - dating
383 all the way back to `First Edition Unix`_ - of 383 all the way back to `First Edition Unix`_ - of the function that
384 converts a "name" to an "inode". ``struct nam 384 converts a "name" to an "inode". ``struct nameidata`` contains (among
385 other fields): 385 other fields):
386 386
387 ``struct path path`` 387 ``struct path path``
388 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 388 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
389 389
390 A ``path`` contains a ``struct vfsmount`` (whi 390 A ``path`` contains a ``struct vfsmount`` (which is
391 embedded in a ``struct mount``) and a ``struct 391 embedded in a ``struct mount``) and a ``struct dentry``. Together these
392 record the current status of the walk. They s 392 record the current status of the walk. They start out referring to the
393 starting point (the current working directory, 393 starting point (the current working directory, the root directory, or some other
394 directory identified by a file descriptor), an 394 directory identified by a file descriptor), and are updated on each
395 step. A reference through ``d_lockref`` and ` 395 step. A reference through ``d_lockref`` and ``mnt_count`` is always
396 held. 396 held.
397 397
398 ``struct qstr last`` 398 ``struct qstr last``
399 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 399 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
400 400
401 This is a string together with a length (i.e. 401 This is a string together with a length (i.e. *not* ``nul`` terminated)
402 that is the "next" component in the pathname. 402 that is the "next" component in the pathname.
403 403
404 ``int last_type`` 404 ``int last_type``
405 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 405 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
406 406
407 This is one of ``LAST_NORM``, ``LAST_ROOT``, ` 407 This is one of ``LAST_NORM``, ``LAST_ROOT``, ``LAST_DOT`` or ``LAST_DOTDOT``.
408 The ``last`` field is only valid if the type i 408 The ``last`` field is only valid if the type is ``LAST_NORM``.
409 409
410 ``struct path root`` 410 ``struct path root``
411 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 411 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
412 412
413 This is used to hold a reference to the effect 413 This is used to hold a reference to the effective root of the
414 filesystem. Often that reference won't be nee 414 filesystem. Often that reference won't be needed, so this field is
415 only assigned the first time it is used, or wh 415 only assigned the first time it is used, or when a non-standard root
416 is requested. Keeping a reference in the ``na 416 is requested. Keeping a reference in the ``nameidata`` ensures that
417 only one root is in effect for the entire path 417 only one root is in effect for the entire path walk, even if it races
418 with a ``chroot()`` system call. 418 with a ``chroot()`` system call.
419 419
420 It should be noted that in the case of ``LOOKU 420 It should be noted that in the case of ``LOOKUP_IN_ROOT`` or
421 ``LOOKUP_BENEATH``, the effective root becomes 421 ``LOOKUP_BENEATH``, the effective root becomes the directory file descriptor
422 passed to ``openat2()`` (which exposes these ` 422 passed to ``openat2()`` (which exposes these ``LOOKUP_`` flags).
423 423
424 The root is needed when either of two conditio 424 The root is needed when either of two conditions holds: (1) either the
425 pathname or a symbolic link starts with a "'/' 425 pathname or a symbolic link starts with a "'/'", or (2) a "``..``"
426 component is being handled, since "``..``" fro 426 component is being handled, since "``..``" from the root must always stay
427 at the root. The value used is usually the cu 427 at the root. The value used is usually the current root directory of
428 the calling process. An alternate root can be 428 the calling process. An alternate root can be provided as when
429 ``sysctl()`` calls ``file_open_root()``, and w 429 ``sysctl()`` calls ``file_open_root()``, and when NFSv4 or Btrfs call
430 ``mount_subtree()``. In each case a pathname 430 ``mount_subtree()``. In each case a pathname is being looked up in a very
431 specific part of the filesystem, and the looku 431 specific part of the filesystem, and the lookup must not be allowed to
432 escape that subtree. It works a bit like a lo 432 escape that subtree. It works a bit like a local ``chroot()``.
433 433
434 Ignoring the handling of symbolic links, we ca 434 Ignoring the handling of symbolic links, we can now describe the
435 "``link_path_walk()``" function, which handles 435 "``link_path_walk()``" function, which handles the lookup of everything
436 except the final component as: 436 except the final component as:
437 437
438 Given a path (``name``) and a nameidata str 438 Given a path (``name``) and a nameidata structure (``nd``), check that the
439 current directory has execute permission an 439 current directory has execute permission and then advance ``name``
440 over one component while updating ``last_ty 440 over one component while updating ``last_type`` and ``last``. If that
441 was the final component, then return, other 441 was the final component, then return, otherwise call
442 ``walk_component()`` and repeat from the to 442 ``walk_component()`` and repeat from the top.
443 443
444 ``walk_component()`` is even easier. If the c 444 ``walk_component()`` is even easier. If the component is ``LAST_DOTS``,
445 it calls ``handle_dots()`` which does the nece 445 it calls ``handle_dots()`` which does the necessary locking as already
446 described. If it finds a ``LAST_NORM`` compon 446 described. If it finds a ``LAST_NORM`` component it first calls
447 "``lookup_fast()``" which only looks in the dc 447 "``lookup_fast()``" which only looks in the dcache, but will ask the
448 filesystem to revalidate the result if it is t 448 filesystem to revalidate the result if it is that sort of filesystem.
449 If that doesn't get a good result, it calls "` 449 If that doesn't get a good result, it calls "``lookup_slow()``" which
450 takes ``i_rwsem``, rechecks the cache, and the 450 takes ``i_rwsem``, rechecks the cache, and then asks the filesystem
451 to find a definitive answer. !! 451 to find a definitive answer. Each of these will call
>> 452 ``follow_managed()`` (as described below) to handle any mount points.
452 453
453 As the last step of walk_component(), step_int !! 454 In the absence of symbolic links, ``walk_component()`` creates a new
454 directly from walk_component() or from handle_ !! 455 ``struct path`` containing a counted reference to the new dentry and a
455 handle_mounts(), to check and handle mount poi !! 456 reference to the new ``vfsmount`` which is only counted if it is
456 ``struct path`` is created containing a counte !! 457 different from the previous ``vfsmount``. It then calls
457 a reference to the new ``vfsmount`` which is o !! 458 ``path_to_nameidata()`` to install the new ``struct path`` in the
458 different from the previous ``vfsmount``. Then !! 459 ``struct nameidata`` and drop the unneeded references.
459 a symbolic link, step_into() calls pick_link() <<
460 otherwise it installs the new ``struct path`` <<
461 drops the unneeded references. <<
462 460
463 This "hand-over-hand" sequencing of getting a 461 This "hand-over-hand" sequencing of getting a reference to the new
464 dentry before dropping the reference to the pr 462 dentry before dropping the reference to the previous dentry may
465 seem obvious, but is worth pointing out so tha 463 seem obvious, but is worth pointing out so that we will recognize its
466 analogue in the "RCU-walk" version. 464 analogue in the "RCU-walk" version.
467 465
468 Handling the final component 466 Handling the final component
469 ---------------------------- 467 ----------------------------
470 468
471 ``link_path_walk()`` only walks as far as sett 469 ``link_path_walk()`` only walks as far as setting ``nd->last`` and
472 ``nd->last_type`` to refer to the final compon 470 ``nd->last_type`` to refer to the final component of the path. It does
473 not call ``walk_component()`` that last time. 471 not call ``walk_component()`` that last time. Handling that final
474 component remains for the caller to sort out. 472 component remains for the caller to sort out. Those callers are
475 path_lookupat(), path_parentat() and !! 473 ``path_lookupat()``, ``path_parentat()``, ``path_mountpoint()`` and
476 path_openat() each of which handles the differ !! 474 ``path_openat()`` each of which handles the differing requirements of
477 different system calls. 475 different system calls.
478 476
479 ``path_parentat()`` is clearly the simplest - 477 ``path_parentat()`` is clearly the simplest - it just wraps a little bit
480 of housekeeping around ``link_path_walk()`` an 478 of housekeeping around ``link_path_walk()`` and returns the parent
481 directory and final component to the caller. 479 directory and final component to the caller. The caller will be either
482 aiming to create a name (via ``filename_create 480 aiming to create a name (via ``filename_create()``) or remove or rename
483 a name (in which case ``user_path_parent()`` i 481 a name (in which case ``user_path_parent()`` is used). They will use
484 ``i_rwsem`` to exclude other changes while the 482 ``i_rwsem`` to exclude other changes while they validate and then
485 perform their operation. 483 perform their operation.
486 484
487 ``path_lookupat()`` is nearly as simple - it i 485 ``path_lookupat()`` is nearly as simple - it is used when an existing
488 object is wanted such as by ``stat()`` or ``ch 486 object is wanted such as by ``stat()`` or ``chmod()``. It essentially just
489 calls ``walk_component()`` on the final compon 487 calls ``walk_component()`` on the final component through a call to
490 ``lookup_last()``. ``path_lookupat()`` return 488 ``lookup_last()``. ``path_lookupat()`` returns just the final dentry.
491 It is worth noting that when flag ``LOOKUP_MOU !! 489
492 path_lookupat() will unset LOOKUP_JUMPED in na !! 490 ``path_mountpoint()`` handles the special case of unmounting which must
493 subsequent path traversal d_weak_revalidate() !! 491 not try to revalidate the mounted filesystem. It effectively
494 This is important when unmounting a filesystem !! 492 contains, through a call to ``mountpoint_last()``, an alternate
>> 493 implementation of ``lookup_slow()`` which skips that step. This is
>> 494 important when unmounting a filesystem that is inaccessible, such as
495 one provided by a dead NFS server. 495 one provided by a dead NFS server.
496 496
497 Finally ``path_openat()`` is used for the ``op 497 Finally ``path_openat()`` is used for the ``open()`` system call; it
498 contains, in support functions starting with " !! 498 contains, in support functions starting with "``do_last()``", all the
499 complexity needed to handle the different subt 499 complexity needed to handle the different subtleties of O_CREAT (with
500 or without O_EXCL), final "``/``" characters, 500 or without O_EXCL), final "``/``" characters, and trailing symbolic
501 links. We will revisit this in the final part 501 links. We will revisit this in the final part of this series, which
502 focuses on those symbolic links. "open_last_l !! 502 focuses on those symbolic links. "``do_last()``" will sometimes, but
503 not always, take ``i_rwsem``, depending on wha 503 not always, take ``i_rwsem``, depending on what it finds.
504 504
505 Each of these, or the functions which call the 505 Each of these, or the functions which call them, need to be alert to
506 the possibility that the final component is no 506 the possibility that the final component is not ``LAST_NORM``. If the
507 goal of the lookup is to create something, the 507 goal of the lookup is to create something, then any value for
508 ``last_type`` other than ``LAST_NORM`` will re 508 ``last_type`` other than ``LAST_NORM`` will result in an error. For
509 example if ``path_parentat()`` reports ``LAST_ 509 example if ``path_parentat()`` reports ``LAST_DOTDOT``, then the caller
510 won't try to create that name. They also chec 510 won't try to create that name. They also check for trailing slashes
511 by testing ``last.name[last.len]``. If there 511 by testing ``last.name[last.len]``. If there is any character beyond
512 the final component, it must be a trailing sla 512 the final component, it must be a trailing slash.
513 513
514 Revalidation and automounts 514 Revalidation and automounts
515 --------------------------- 515 ---------------------------
516 516
517 Apart from symbolic links, there are only two 517 Apart from symbolic links, there are only two parts of the "REF-walk"
518 process not yet covered. One is the handling 518 process not yet covered. One is the handling of stale cache entries
519 and the other is automounts. 519 and the other is automounts.
520 520
521 On filesystems that require it, the lookup rou 521 On filesystems that require it, the lookup routines will call the
522 ``->d_revalidate()`` dentry method to ensure t 522 ``->d_revalidate()`` dentry method to ensure that the cached information
523 is current. This will often confirm validity 523 is current. This will often confirm validity or update a few details
524 from a server. In some cases it may find that 524 from a server. In some cases it may find that there has been change
525 further up the path and that something that wa 525 further up the path and that something that was thought to be valid
526 previously isn't really. When this happens th 526 previously isn't really. When this happens the lookup of the whole
527 path is aborted and retried with the "``LOOKUP 527 path is aborted and retried with the "``LOOKUP_REVAL``" flag set. This
528 forces revalidation to be more thorough. We w 528 forces revalidation to be more thorough. We will see more details of
529 this retry process in the next article. 529 this retry process in the next article.
530 530
531 Automount points are locations in the filesyst 531 Automount points are locations in the filesystem where an attempt to
532 lookup a name can trigger changes to how that 532 lookup a name can trigger changes to how that lookup should be
533 handled, in particular by mounting a filesyste 533 handled, in particular by mounting a filesystem there. These are
534 covered in greater detail in autofs.txt in the 534 covered in greater detail in autofs.txt in the Linux documentation
535 tree, but a few notes specifically related to 535 tree, but a few notes specifically related to path lookup are in order
536 here. 536 here.
537 537
538 The Linux VFS has a concept of "managed" dentr !! 538 The Linux VFS has a concept of "managed" dentries which is reflected
>> 539 in function names such as "``follow_managed()``". There are three
539 potentially interesting things about these den 540 potentially interesting things about these dentries corresponding
540 to three different flags that might be set in 541 to three different flags that might be set in ``dentry->d_flags``:
541 542
542 ``DCACHE_MANAGE_TRANSIT`` 543 ``DCACHE_MANAGE_TRANSIT``
543 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 544 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
544 545
545 If this flag has been set, then the filesystem 546 If this flag has been set, then the filesystem has requested that the
546 ``d_manage()`` dentry operation be called befo 547 ``d_manage()`` dentry operation be called before handling any possible
547 mount point. This can perform two particular 548 mount point. This can perform two particular services:
548 549
549 It can block to avoid races. If an automount 550 It can block to avoid races. If an automount point is being
550 unmounted, the ``d_manage()`` function will us 551 unmounted, the ``d_manage()`` function will usually wait for that
551 process to complete before letting the new loo 552 process to complete before letting the new lookup proceed and possibly
552 trigger a new automount. 553 trigger a new automount.
553 554
554 It can selectively allow only some processes t 555 It can selectively allow only some processes to transit through a
555 mount point. When a server process is managin 556 mount point. When a server process is managing automounts, it may
556 need to access a directory without triggering 557 need to access a directory without triggering normal automount
557 processing. That server process can identify 558 processing. That server process can identify itself to the ``autofs``
558 filesystem, which will then give it a special 559 filesystem, which will then give it a special pass through
559 ``d_manage()`` by returning ``-EISDIR``. 560 ``d_manage()`` by returning ``-EISDIR``.
560 561
561 ``DCACHE_MOUNTED`` 562 ``DCACHE_MOUNTED``
562 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 563 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
563 564
564 This flag is set on every dentry that is mount 565 This flag is set on every dentry that is mounted on. As Linux
565 supports multiple filesystem namespaces, it is 566 supports multiple filesystem namespaces, it is possible that the
566 dentry may not be mounted on in *this* namespa 567 dentry may not be mounted on in *this* namespace, just in some
567 other. So this flag is seen as a hint, not a 568 other. So this flag is seen as a hint, not a promise.
568 569
569 If this flag is set, and ``d_manage()`` didn't 570 If this flag is set, and ``d_manage()`` didn't return ``-EISDIR``,
570 ``lookup_mnt()`` is called to examine the moun 571 ``lookup_mnt()`` is called to examine the mount hash table (honoring the
571 ``mount_lock`` described earlier) and possibly 572 ``mount_lock`` described earlier) and possibly return a new ``vfsmount``
572 and a new ``dentry`` (both with counted refere 573 and a new ``dentry`` (both with counted references).
573 574
574 ``DCACHE_NEED_AUTOMOUNT`` 575 ``DCACHE_NEED_AUTOMOUNT``
575 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 576 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
576 577
577 If ``d_manage()`` allowed us to get this far, 578 If ``d_manage()`` allowed us to get this far, and ``lookup_mnt()`` didn't
578 find a mount point, then this flag causes the 579 find a mount point, then this flag causes the ``d_automount()`` dentry
579 operation to be called. 580 operation to be called.
580 581
581 The ``d_automount()`` operation can be arbitra 582 The ``d_automount()`` operation can be arbitrarily complex and may
582 communicate with server processes etc. but it 583 communicate with server processes etc. but it should ultimately either
583 report that there was an error, that there was 584 report that there was an error, that there was nothing to mount, or
584 should provide an updated ``struct path`` with 585 should provide an updated ``struct path`` with new ``dentry`` and ``vfsmount``.
585 586
586 In the latter case, ``finish_automount()`` wil 587 In the latter case, ``finish_automount()`` will be called to safely
587 install the new mount point into the mount tab 588 install the new mount point into the mount table.
588 589
589 There is no new locking of import here and it 590 There is no new locking of import here and it is important that no
590 locks (only counted references) are held over 591 locks (only counted references) are held over this processing due to
591 the very real possibility of extended delays. 592 the very real possibility of extended delays.
592 This will become more important next time when 593 This will become more important next time when we examine RCU-walk
593 which is particularly sensitive to delays. 594 which is particularly sensitive to delays.
594 595
595 RCU-walk - faster pathname lookup in Linux 596 RCU-walk - faster pathname lookup in Linux
596 ========================================== 597 ==========================================
597 598
598 RCU-walk is another algorithm for performing p 599 RCU-walk is another algorithm for performing pathname lookup in Linux.
599 It is in many ways similar to REF-walk and the 600 It is in many ways similar to REF-walk and the two share quite a bit
600 of code. The significant difference in RCU-wa 601 of code. The significant difference in RCU-walk is how it allows for
601 the possibility of concurrent access. 602 the possibility of concurrent access.
602 603
603 We noted that REF-walk is complex because ther 604 We noted that REF-walk is complex because there are numerous details
604 and special cases. RCU-walk reduces this comp 605 and special cases. RCU-walk reduces this complexity by simply
605 refusing to handle a number of cases -- it ins 606 refusing to handle a number of cases -- it instead falls back to
606 REF-walk. The difficulty with RCU-walk comes 607 REF-walk. The difficulty with RCU-walk comes from a different
607 direction: unfamiliarity. The locking rules w 608 direction: unfamiliarity. The locking rules when depending on RCU are
608 quite different from traditional locking, so w 609 quite different from traditional locking, so we will spend a little extra
609 time when we come to those. 610 time when we come to those.
610 611
611 Clear demarcation of roles 612 Clear demarcation of roles
612 -------------------------- 613 --------------------------
613 614
614 The easiest way to manage concurrency is to fo 615 The easiest way to manage concurrency is to forcibly stop any other
615 thread from changing the data structures that 616 thread from changing the data structures that a given thread is
616 looking at. In cases where no other thread wo 617 looking at. In cases where no other thread would even think of
617 changing the data and lots of different thread 618 changing the data and lots of different threads want to read at the
618 same time, this can be very costly. Even when 619 same time, this can be very costly. Even when using locks that permit
619 multiple concurrent readers, the simple act of 620 multiple concurrent readers, the simple act of updating the count of
620 the number of current readers can impose an un 621 the number of current readers can impose an unwanted cost. So the
621 goal when reading a shared data structure that 622 goal when reading a shared data structure that no other process is
622 changing is to avoid writing anything to memor 623 changing is to avoid writing anything to memory at all. Take no
623 locks, increment no counts, leave no footprint 624 locks, increment no counts, leave no footprints.
624 625
625 The REF-walk mechanism already described certa 626 The REF-walk mechanism already described certainly doesn't follow this
626 principle, but then it is really designed to w 627 principle, but then it is really designed to work when there may well
627 be other threads modifying the data. RCU-walk 628 be other threads modifying the data. RCU-walk, in contrast, is
628 designed for the common situation where there 629 designed for the common situation where there are lots of frequent
629 readers and only occasional writers. This may 630 readers and only occasional writers. This may not be common in all
630 parts of the filesystem tree, but in many part 631 parts of the filesystem tree, but in many parts it will be. For the
631 other parts it is important that RCU-walk can 632 other parts it is important that RCU-walk can quickly fall back to
632 using REF-walk. 633 using REF-walk.
633 634
634 Pathname lookup always starts in RCU-walk mode 635 Pathname lookup always starts in RCU-walk mode but only remains there
635 as long as what it is looking for is in the ca 636 as long as what it is looking for is in the cache and is stable. It
636 dances lightly down the cached filesystem imag 637 dances lightly down the cached filesystem image, leaving no footprints
637 and carefully watching where it is, to be sure 638 and carefully watching where it is, to be sure it doesn't trip. If it
638 notices that something has changed or is chang 639 notices that something has changed or is changing, or if something
639 isn't in the cache, then it tries to stop grac 640 isn't in the cache, then it tries to stop gracefully and switch to
640 REF-walk. 641 REF-walk.
641 642
642 This stopping requires getting a counted refer 643 This stopping requires getting a counted reference on the current
643 ``vfsmount`` and ``dentry``, and ensuring that 644 ``vfsmount`` and ``dentry``, and ensuring that these are still valid -
644 that a path walk with REF-walk would have foun 645 that a path walk with REF-walk would have found the same entries.
645 This is an invariant that RCU-walk must guaran 646 This is an invariant that RCU-walk must guarantee. It can only make
646 decisions, such as selecting the next step, th 647 decisions, such as selecting the next step, that are decisions which
647 REF-walk could also have made if it were walki 648 REF-walk could also have made if it were walking down the tree at the
648 same time. If the graceful stop succeeds, the 649 same time. If the graceful stop succeeds, the rest of the path is
649 processed with the reliable, if slightly slugg 650 processed with the reliable, if slightly sluggish, REF-walk. If
650 RCU-walk finds it cannot stop gracefully, it s 651 RCU-walk finds it cannot stop gracefully, it simply gives up and
651 restarts from the top with REF-walk. 652 restarts from the top with REF-walk.
652 653
653 This pattern of "try RCU-walk, if that fails t 654 This pattern of "try RCU-walk, if that fails try REF-walk" can be
654 clearly seen in functions like filename_lookup !! 655 clearly seen in functions like ``filename_lookup()``,
655 filename_parentat(), !! 656 ``filename_parentat()``, ``filename_mountpoint()``,
656 do_filp_open(), and do_file_open_root(). Thes !! 657 ``do_filp_open()``, and ``do_file_open_root()``. These five
657 correspond roughly to the three ``path_*()`` f !! 658 correspond roughly to the four ``path_*()`` functions we met earlier,
658 each of which calls ``link_path_walk()``. The 659 each of which calls ``link_path_walk()``. The ``path_*()`` functions are
659 called using different mode flags until a mode 660 called using different mode flags until a mode is found which works.
660 They are first called with ``LOOKUP_RCU`` set 661 They are first called with ``LOOKUP_RCU`` set to request "RCU-walk". If
661 that fails with the error ``ECHILD`` they are 662 that fails with the error ``ECHILD`` they are called again with no
662 special flag to request "REF-walk". If either 663 special flag to request "REF-walk". If either of those report the
663 error ``ESTALE`` a final attempt is made with 664 error ``ESTALE`` a final attempt is made with ``LOOKUP_REVAL`` set (and no
664 ``LOOKUP_RCU``) to ensure that entries found i 665 ``LOOKUP_RCU``) to ensure that entries found in the cache are forcibly
665 revalidated - normally entries are only revali 666 revalidated - normally entries are only revalidated if the filesystem
666 determines that they are too old to trust. 667 determines that they are too old to trust.
667 668
668 The ``LOOKUP_RCU`` attempt may drop that flag 669 The ``LOOKUP_RCU`` attempt may drop that flag internally and switch to
669 REF-walk, but will never then try to switch ba 670 REF-walk, but will never then try to switch back to RCU-walk. Places
670 that trip up RCU-walk are much more likely to 671 that trip up RCU-walk are much more likely to be near the leaves and
671 so it is very unlikely that there will be much 672 so it is very unlikely that there will be much, if any, benefit from
672 switching back. 673 switching back.
673 674
674 RCU and seqlocks: fast and light 675 RCU and seqlocks: fast and light
675 -------------------------------- 676 --------------------------------
676 677
677 RCU is, unsurprisingly, critical to RCU-walk m 678 RCU is, unsurprisingly, critical to RCU-walk mode. The
678 ``rcu_read_lock()`` is held for the entire tim 679 ``rcu_read_lock()`` is held for the entire time that RCU-walk is walking
679 down a path. The particular guarantee it prov 680 down a path. The particular guarantee it provides is that the key
680 data structures - dentries, inodes, super_bloc 681 data structures - dentries, inodes, super_blocks, and mounts - will
681 not be freed while the lock is held. They mig 682 not be freed while the lock is held. They might be unlinked or
682 invalidated in one way or another, but the mem 683 invalidated in one way or another, but the memory will not be
683 repurposed so values in various fields will st 684 repurposed so values in various fields will still be meaningful. This
684 is the only guarantee that RCU provides; every 685 is the only guarantee that RCU provides; everything else is done using
685 seqlocks. 686 seqlocks.
686 687
687 As we saw above, REF-walk holds a counted refe 688 As we saw above, REF-walk holds a counted reference to the current
688 dentry and the current vfsmount, and does not 689 dentry and the current vfsmount, and does not release those references
689 before taking references to the "next" dentry 690 before taking references to the "next" dentry or vfsmount. It also
690 sometimes takes the ``d_lock`` spinlock. Thes 691 sometimes takes the ``d_lock`` spinlock. These references and locks are
691 taken to prevent certain changes from happenin 692 taken to prevent certain changes from happening. RCU-walk must not
692 take those references or locks and so cannot p 693 take those references or locks and so cannot prevent such changes.
693 Instead, it checks to see if a change has been 694 Instead, it checks to see if a change has been made, and aborts or
694 retries if it has. 695 retries if it has.
695 696
696 To preserve the invariant mentioned above (tha 697 To preserve the invariant mentioned above (that RCU-walk may only make
697 decisions that REF-walk could have made), it m 698 decisions that REF-walk could have made), it must make the checks at
698 or near the same places that REF-walk holds th 699 or near the same places that REF-walk holds the references. So, when
699 REF-walk increments a reference count or takes 700 REF-walk increments a reference count or takes a spinlock, RCU-walk
700 samples the status of a seqlock using ``read_s 701 samples the status of a seqlock using ``read_seqcount_begin()`` or a
701 similar function. When REF-walk decrements th 702 similar function. When REF-walk decrements the count or drops the
702 lock, RCU-walk checks if the sampled status is 703 lock, RCU-walk checks if the sampled status is still valid using
703 ``read_seqcount_retry()`` or similar. 704 ``read_seqcount_retry()`` or similar.
704 705
705 However, there is a little bit more to seqlock 706 However, there is a little bit more to seqlocks than that. If
706 RCU-walk accesses two different fields in a se 707 RCU-walk accesses two different fields in a seqlock-protected
707 structure, or accesses the same field twice, t 708 structure, or accesses the same field twice, there is no a priori
708 guarantee of any consistency between those acc 709 guarantee of any consistency between those accesses. When consistency
709 is needed - which it usually is - RCU-walk mus 710 is needed - which it usually is - RCU-walk must take a copy and then
710 use ``read_seqcount_retry()`` to validate that 711 use ``read_seqcount_retry()`` to validate that copy.
711 712
712 ``read_seqcount_retry()`` not only checks the 713 ``read_seqcount_retry()`` not only checks the sequence number, but also
713 imposes a memory barrier so that no memory-rea 714 imposes a memory barrier so that no memory-read instruction from
714 *before* the call can be delayed until *after* 715 *before* the call can be delayed until *after* the call, either by the
715 CPU or by the compiler. A simple example of t 716 CPU or by the compiler. A simple example of this can be seen in
716 ``slow_dentry_cmp()`` which, for filesystems w 717 ``slow_dentry_cmp()`` which, for filesystems which do not use simple
717 byte-wise name equality, calls into the filesy 718 byte-wise name equality, calls into the filesystem to compare a name
718 against a dentry. The length and name pointer 719 against a dentry. The length and name pointer are copied into local
719 variables, then ``read_seqcount_retry()`` is c 720 variables, then ``read_seqcount_retry()`` is called to confirm the two
720 are consistent, and only then is ``->d_compare 721 are consistent, and only then is ``->d_compare()`` called. When
721 standard filename comparison is used, ``dentry 722 standard filename comparison is used, ``dentry_cmp()`` is called
722 instead. Notably it does *not* use ``read_seq 723 instead. Notably it does *not* use ``read_seqcount_retry()``, but
723 instead has a large comment explaining why the 724 instead has a large comment explaining why the consistency guarantee
724 isn't necessary. A subsequent ``read_seqcount 725 isn't necessary. A subsequent ``read_seqcount_retry()`` will be
725 sufficient to catch any problem that could occ 726 sufficient to catch any problem that could occur at this point.
726 727
727 With that little refresher on seqlocks out of 728 With that little refresher on seqlocks out of the way we can look at
728 the bigger picture of how RCU-walk uses seqloc 729 the bigger picture of how RCU-walk uses seqlocks.
729 730
730 ``mount_lock`` and ``nd->m_seq`` 731 ``mount_lock`` and ``nd->m_seq``
731 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 732 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
732 733
733 We already met the ``mount_lock`` seqlock when 734 We already met the ``mount_lock`` seqlock when REF-walk used it to
734 ensure that crossing a mount point is performe 735 ensure that crossing a mount point is performed safely. RCU-walk uses
735 it for that too, but for quite a bit more. 736 it for that too, but for quite a bit more.
736 737
737 Instead of taking a counted reference to each 738 Instead of taking a counted reference to each ``vfsmount`` as it
738 descends the tree, RCU-walk samples the state 739 descends the tree, RCU-walk samples the state of ``mount_lock`` at the
739 start of the walk and stores this initial sequ 740 start of the walk and stores this initial sequence number in the
740 ``struct nameidata`` in the ``m_seq`` field. 741 ``struct nameidata`` in the ``m_seq`` field. This one lock and one
741 sequence number are used to validate all acces 742 sequence number are used to validate all accesses to all ``vfsmounts``,
742 and all mount point crossings. As changes to 743 and all mount point crossings. As changes to the mount table are
743 relatively rare, it is reasonable to fall back 744 relatively rare, it is reasonable to fall back on REF-walk any time
744 that any "mount" or "unmount" happens. 745 that any "mount" or "unmount" happens.
745 746
746 ``m_seq`` is checked (using ``read_seqretry()` 747 ``m_seq`` is checked (using ``read_seqretry()``) at the end of an RCU-walk
747 sequence, whether switching to REF-walk for th 748 sequence, whether switching to REF-walk for the rest of the path or
748 when the end of the path is reached. It is al 749 when the end of the path is reached. It is also checked when stepping
749 down over a mount point (in ``__follow_mount_r 750 down over a mount point (in ``__follow_mount_rcu()``) or up (in
750 ``follow_dotdot_rcu()``). If it is ever found 751 ``follow_dotdot_rcu()``). If it is ever found to have changed, the
751 whole RCU-walk sequence is aborted and the pat 752 whole RCU-walk sequence is aborted and the path is processed again by
752 REF-walk. 753 REF-walk.
753 754
754 If RCU-walk finds that ``mount_lock`` hasn't c 755 If RCU-walk finds that ``mount_lock`` hasn't changed then it can be sure
755 that, had REF-walk taken counted references on 756 that, had REF-walk taken counted references on each vfsmount, the
756 results would have been the same. This ensure 757 results would have been the same. This ensures the invariant holds,
757 at least for vfsmount structures. 758 at least for vfsmount structures.
758 759
759 ``dentry->d_seq`` and ``nd->seq`` 760 ``dentry->d_seq`` and ``nd->seq``
760 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 761 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
761 762
762 In place of taking a count or lock on ``d_refl 763 In place of taking a count or lock on ``d_reflock``, RCU-walk samples
763 the per-dentry ``d_seq`` seqlock, and stores t 764 the per-dentry ``d_seq`` seqlock, and stores the sequence number in the
764 ``seq`` field of the nameidata structure, so ` 765 ``seq`` field of the nameidata structure, so ``nd->seq`` should always be
765 the current sequence number of ``nd->dentry``. 766 the current sequence number of ``nd->dentry``. This number needs to be
766 revalidated after copying, and before using, t 767 revalidated after copying, and before using, the name, parent, or
767 inode of the dentry. 768 inode of the dentry.
768 769
769 The handling of the name we have already looke 770 The handling of the name we have already looked at, and the parent is
770 only accessed in ``follow_dotdot_rcu()`` which 771 only accessed in ``follow_dotdot_rcu()`` which fairly trivially follows
771 the required pattern, though it does so for th 772 the required pattern, though it does so for three different cases.
772 773
773 When not at a mount point, ``d_parent`` is fol 774 When not at a mount point, ``d_parent`` is followed and its ``d_seq`` is
774 collected. When we are at a mount point, we i 775 collected. When we are at a mount point, we instead follow the
775 ``mnt->mnt_mountpoint`` link to get a new dent 776 ``mnt->mnt_mountpoint`` link to get a new dentry and collect its
776 ``d_seq``. Then, after finally finding a ``d_ 777 ``d_seq``. Then, after finally finding a ``d_parent`` to follow, we must
777 check if we have landed on a mount point and, 778 check if we have landed on a mount point and, if so, must find that
778 mount point and follow the ``mnt->mnt_root`` l 779 mount point and follow the ``mnt->mnt_root`` link. This would imply a
779 somewhat unusual, but certainly possible, circ 780 somewhat unusual, but certainly possible, circumstance where the
780 starting point of the path lookup was in part 781 starting point of the path lookup was in part of the filesystem that
781 was mounted on, and so not visible from the ro 782 was mounted on, and so not visible from the root.
782 783
783 The inode pointer, stored in ``->d_inode``, is 784 The inode pointer, stored in ``->d_inode``, is a little more
784 interesting. The inode will always need to be 785 interesting. The inode will always need to be accessed at least
785 twice, once to determine if it is NULL and onc 786 twice, once to determine if it is NULL and once to verify access
786 permissions. Symlink handling requires a vali 787 permissions. Symlink handling requires a validated inode pointer too.
787 Rather than revalidating on each access, a cop 788 Rather than revalidating on each access, a copy is made on the first
788 access and it is stored in the ``inode`` field 789 access and it is stored in the ``inode`` field of ``nameidata`` from where
789 it can be safely accessed without further vali 790 it can be safely accessed without further validation.
790 791
791 ``lookup_fast()`` is the only lookup routine t 792 ``lookup_fast()`` is the only lookup routine that is used in RCU-mode,
792 ``lookup_slow()`` being too slow and requiring 793 ``lookup_slow()`` being too slow and requiring locks. It is in
793 ``lookup_fast()`` that we find the important " 794 ``lookup_fast()`` that we find the important "hand over hand" tracking
794 of the current dentry. 795 of the current dentry.
795 796
796 The current ``dentry`` and current ``seq`` num 797 The current ``dentry`` and current ``seq`` number are passed to
797 ``__d_lookup_rcu()`` which, on success, return 798 ``__d_lookup_rcu()`` which, on success, returns a new ``dentry`` and a
798 new ``seq`` number. ``lookup_fast()`` then co 799 new ``seq`` number. ``lookup_fast()`` then copies the inode pointer and
799 revalidates the new ``seq`` number. It then v 800 revalidates the new ``seq`` number. It then validates the old ``dentry``
800 with the old ``seq`` number one last time and 801 with the old ``seq`` number one last time and only then continues. This
801 process of getting the ``seq`` number of the n 802 process of getting the ``seq`` number of the new dentry and then
802 checking the ``seq`` number of the old exactly 803 checking the ``seq`` number of the old exactly mirrors the process of
803 getting a counted reference to the new dentry 804 getting a counted reference to the new dentry before dropping that for
804 the old dentry which we saw in REF-walk. 805 the old dentry which we saw in REF-walk.
805 806
806 No ``inode->i_rwsem`` or even ``rename_lock`` 807 No ``inode->i_rwsem`` or even ``rename_lock``
807 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 808 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
808 809
809 A semaphore is a fairly heavyweight lock that 810 A semaphore is a fairly heavyweight lock that can only be taken when it is
810 permissible to sleep. As ``rcu_read_lock()`` 811 permissible to sleep. As ``rcu_read_lock()`` forbids sleeping,
811 ``inode->i_rwsem`` plays no role in RCU-walk. 812 ``inode->i_rwsem`` plays no role in RCU-walk. If some other thread does
812 take ``i_rwsem`` and modifies the directory in 813 take ``i_rwsem`` and modifies the directory in a way that RCU-walk needs
813 to notice, the result will be either that RCU- 814 to notice, the result will be either that RCU-walk fails to find the
814 dentry that it is looking for, or it will find 815 dentry that it is looking for, or it will find a dentry which
815 ``read_seqretry()`` won't validate. In either 816 ``read_seqretry()`` won't validate. In either case it will drop down to
816 REF-walk mode which can take whatever locks ar 817 REF-walk mode which can take whatever locks are needed.
817 818
818 Though ``rename_lock`` could be used by RCU-wa 819 Though ``rename_lock`` could be used by RCU-walk as it doesn't require
819 any sleeping, RCU-walk doesn't bother. REF-wa 820 any sleeping, RCU-walk doesn't bother. REF-walk uses ``rename_lock`` to
820 protect against the possibility of hash chains 821 protect against the possibility of hash chains in the dcache changing
821 while they are being searched. This can resul 822 while they are being searched. This can result in failing to find
822 something that actually is there. When RCU-wa 823 something that actually is there. When RCU-walk fails to find
823 something in the dentry cache, whether it is r 824 something in the dentry cache, whether it is really there or not, it
824 already drops down to REF-walk and tries again 825 already drops down to REF-walk and tries again with appropriate
825 locking. This neatly handles all cases, so ad 826 locking. This neatly handles all cases, so adding extra checks on
826 rename_lock would bring no significant value. 827 rename_lock would bring no significant value.
827 828
828 ``unlazy walk()`` and ``complete_walk()`` 829 ``unlazy walk()`` and ``complete_walk()``
829 ----------------------------------------- 830 -----------------------------------------
830 831
831 That "dropping down to REF-walk" typically inv 832 That "dropping down to REF-walk" typically involves a call to
832 ``unlazy_walk()``, so named because "RCU-walk" 833 ``unlazy_walk()``, so named because "RCU-walk" is also sometimes
833 referred to as "lazy walk". ``unlazy_walk()`` 834 referred to as "lazy walk". ``unlazy_walk()`` is called when
834 following the path down to the current vfsmoun 835 following the path down to the current vfsmount/dentry pair seems to
835 have proceeded successfully, but the next step 836 have proceeded successfully, but the next step is problematic. This
836 can happen if the next name cannot be found in 837 can happen if the next name cannot be found in the dcache, if
837 permission checking or name revalidation could 838 permission checking or name revalidation couldn't be achieved while
838 the ``rcu_read_lock()`` is held (which forbids 839 the ``rcu_read_lock()`` is held (which forbids sleeping), if an
839 automount point is found, or in a couple of ca 840 automount point is found, or in a couple of cases involving symlinks.
840 It is also called from ``complete_walk()`` whe 841 It is also called from ``complete_walk()`` when the lookup has reached
841 the final component, or the very end of the pa 842 the final component, or the very end of the path, depending on which
842 particular flavor of lookup is used. 843 particular flavor of lookup is used.
843 844
844 Other reasons for dropping out of RCU-walk tha 845 Other reasons for dropping out of RCU-walk that do not trigger a call
845 to ``unlazy_walk()`` are when some inconsisten 846 to ``unlazy_walk()`` are when some inconsistency is found that cannot be
846 handled immediately, such as ``mount_lock`` or 847 handled immediately, such as ``mount_lock`` or one of the ``d_seq``
847 seqlocks reporting a change. In these cases t 848 seqlocks reporting a change. In these cases the relevant function
848 will return ``-ECHILD`` which will percolate u 849 will return ``-ECHILD`` which will percolate up until it triggers a new
849 attempt from the top using REF-walk. 850 attempt from the top using REF-walk.
850 851
851 For those cases where ``unlazy_walk()`` is an 852 For those cases where ``unlazy_walk()`` is an option, it essentially
852 takes a reference on each of the pointers that 853 takes a reference on each of the pointers that it holds (vfsmount,
853 dentry, and possibly some symbolic links) and 854 dentry, and possibly some symbolic links) and then verifies that the
854 relevant seqlocks have not been changed. If t 855 relevant seqlocks have not been changed. If there have been changes,
855 it, too, aborts with ``-ECHILD``, otherwise th 856 it, too, aborts with ``-ECHILD``, otherwise the transition to REF-walk
856 has been a success and the lookup process cont 857 has been a success and the lookup process continues.
857 858
858 Taking a reference on those pointers is not qu 859 Taking a reference on those pointers is not quite as simple as just
859 incrementing a counter. That works to take a 860 incrementing a counter. That works to take a second reference if you
860 already have one (often indirectly through ano 861 already have one (often indirectly through another object), but it
861 isn't sufficient if you don't actually have a 862 isn't sufficient if you don't actually have a counted reference at
862 all. For ``dentry->d_lockref``, it is safe to 863 all. For ``dentry->d_lockref``, it is safe to increment the reference
863 counter to get a reference unless it has been 864 counter to get a reference unless it has been explicitly marked as
864 "dead" which involves setting the counter to ` 865 "dead" which involves setting the counter to ``-128``.
865 ``lockref_get_not_dead()`` achieves this. 866 ``lockref_get_not_dead()`` achieves this.
866 867
867 For ``mnt->mnt_count`` it is safe to take a re 868 For ``mnt->mnt_count`` it is safe to take a reference as long as
868 ``mount_lock`` is then used to validate the re 869 ``mount_lock`` is then used to validate the reference. If that
869 validation fails, it may *not* be safe to just 870 validation fails, it may *not* be safe to just drop that reference in
870 the standard way of calling ``mnt_put()`` - an 871 the standard way of calling ``mnt_put()`` - an unmount may have
871 progressed too far. So the code in ``legitimi 872 progressed too far. So the code in ``legitimize_mnt()``, when it
872 finds that the reference it got might not be s 873 finds that the reference it got might not be safe, checks the
873 ``MNT_SYNC_UMOUNT`` flag to determine if a sim 874 ``MNT_SYNC_UMOUNT`` flag to determine if a simple ``mnt_put()`` is
874 correct, or if it should just decrement the co 875 correct, or if it should just decrement the count and pretend none of
875 this ever happened. 876 this ever happened.
876 877
877 Taking care in filesystems 878 Taking care in filesystems
878 -------------------------- 879 --------------------------
879 880
880 RCU-walk depends almost entirely on cached inf 881 RCU-walk depends almost entirely on cached information and often will
881 not call into the filesystem at all. However 882 not call into the filesystem at all. However there are two places,
882 besides the already-mentioned component-name c 883 besides the already-mentioned component-name comparison, where the
883 file system might be included in RCU-walk, and 884 file system might be included in RCU-walk, and it must know to be
884 careful. 885 careful.
885 886
886 If the filesystem has non-standard permission- 887 If the filesystem has non-standard permission-checking requirements -
887 such as a networked filesystem which may need 888 such as a networked filesystem which may need to check with the server
888 - the ``i_op->permission`` interface might be 889 - the ``i_op->permission`` interface might be called during RCU-walk.
889 In this case an extra "``MAY_NOT_BLOCK``" flag 890 In this case an extra "``MAY_NOT_BLOCK``" flag is passed so that it
890 knows not to sleep, but to return ``-ECHILD`` 891 knows not to sleep, but to return ``-ECHILD`` if it cannot complete
891 promptly. ``i_op->permission`` is given the i 892 promptly. ``i_op->permission`` is given the inode pointer, not the
892 dentry, so it doesn't need to worry about furt 893 dentry, so it doesn't need to worry about further consistency checks.
893 However if it accesses any other filesystem da 894 However if it accesses any other filesystem data structures, it must
894 ensure they are safe to be accessed with only 895 ensure they are safe to be accessed with only the ``rcu_read_lock()``
895 held. This typically means they must be freed 896 held. This typically means they must be freed using ``kfree_rcu()`` or
896 similar. 897 similar.
897 898
898 .. _READ_ONCE: https://lwn.net/Articles/624126 899 .. _READ_ONCE: https://lwn.net/Articles/624126/
899 900
900 If the filesystem may need to revalidate dcach 901 If the filesystem may need to revalidate dcache entries, then
901 ``d_op->d_revalidate`` may be called in RCU-wa 902 ``d_op->d_revalidate`` may be called in RCU-walk too. This interface
902 *is* passed the dentry but does not have acces 903 *is* passed the dentry but does not have access to the ``inode`` or the
903 ``seq`` number from the ``nameidata``, so it n 904 ``seq`` number from the ``nameidata``, so it needs to be extra careful
904 when accessing fields in the dentry. This "ex 905 when accessing fields in the dentry. This "extra care" typically
905 involves using `READ_ONCE() <READ_ONCE_>`_ to 906 involves using `READ_ONCE() <READ_ONCE_>`_ to access fields, and verifying the
906 result is not NULL before using it. This patt 907 result is not NULL before using it. This pattern can be seen in
907 ``nfs_lookup_revalidate()``. 908 ``nfs_lookup_revalidate()``.
908 909
909 A pair of patterns 910 A pair of patterns
910 ------------------ 911 ------------------
911 912
912 In various places in the details of REF-walk a 913 In various places in the details of REF-walk and RCU-walk, and also in
913 the big picture, there are a couple of related 914 the big picture, there are a couple of related patterns that are worth
914 being aware of. 915 being aware of.
915 916
916 The first is "try quickly and check, if that f 917 The first is "try quickly and check, if that fails try slowly". We
917 can see that in the high-level approach of fir 918 can see that in the high-level approach of first trying RCU-walk and
918 then trying REF-walk, and in places where ``un 919 then trying REF-walk, and in places where ``unlazy_walk()`` is used to
919 switch to REF-walk for the rest of the path. 920 switch to REF-walk for the rest of the path. We also saw it earlier
920 in ``dget_parent()`` when following a "``..``" 921 in ``dget_parent()`` when following a "``..``" link. It tries a quick way
921 to get a reference, then falls back to taking 922 to get a reference, then falls back to taking locks if needed.
922 923
923 The second pattern is "try quickly and check, 924 The second pattern is "try quickly and check, if that fails try
924 again - repeatedly". This is seen with the us 925 again - repeatedly". This is seen with the use of ``rename_lock`` and
925 ``mount_lock`` in REF-walk. RCU-walk doesn't 926 ``mount_lock`` in REF-walk. RCU-walk doesn't make use of this pattern -
926 if anything goes wrong it is much safer to jus 927 if anything goes wrong it is much safer to just abort and try a more
927 sedate approach. 928 sedate approach.
928 929
929 The emphasis here is "try quickly and check". 930 The emphasis here is "try quickly and check". It should probably be
930 "try quickly *and carefully*, then check". Th 931 "try quickly *and carefully*, then check". The fact that checking is
931 needed is a reminder that the system is dynami 932 needed is a reminder that the system is dynamic and only a limited
932 number of things are safe at all. The most li 933 number of things are safe at all. The most likely cause of errors in
933 this whole process is assuming something is sa 934 this whole process is assuming something is safe when in reality it
934 isn't. Careful consideration of what exactly 935 isn't. Careful consideration of what exactly guarantees the safety of
935 each access is sometimes necessary. 936 each access is sometimes necessary.
936 937
937 A walk among the symlinks 938 A walk among the symlinks
938 ========================= 939 =========================
939 940
940 There are several basic issues that we will ex 941 There are several basic issues that we will examine to understand the
941 handling of symbolic links: the symlink stack 942 handling of symbolic links: the symlink stack, together with cache
942 lifetimes, will help us understand the overall 943 lifetimes, will help us understand the overall recursive handling of
943 symlinks and lead to the special care needed f 944 symlinks and lead to the special care needed for the final component.
944 Then a consideration of access-time updates an 945 Then a consideration of access-time updates and summary of the various
945 flags controlling lookup will finish the story 946 flags controlling lookup will finish the story.
946 947
947 The symlink stack 948 The symlink stack
948 ----------------- 949 -----------------
949 950
950 There are only two sorts of filesystem objects 951 There are only two sorts of filesystem objects that can usefully
951 appear in a path prior to the final component: 952 appear in a path prior to the final component: directories and symlinks.
952 Handling directories is quite straightforward: 953 Handling directories is quite straightforward: the new directory
953 simply becomes the starting point at which to 954 simply becomes the starting point at which to interpret the next
954 component on the path. Handling symbolic link 955 component on the path. Handling symbolic links requires a bit more
955 work. 956 work.
956 957
957 Conceptually, symbolic links could be handled 958 Conceptually, symbolic links could be handled by editing the path. If
958 a component name refers to a symbolic link, th 959 a component name refers to a symbolic link, then that component is
959 replaced by the body of the link and, if that 960 replaced by the body of the link and, if that body starts with a '/',
960 then all preceding parts of the path are disca 961 then all preceding parts of the path are discarded. This is what the
961 "``readlink -f``" command does, though it also 962 "``readlink -f``" command does, though it also edits out "``.``" and
962 "``..``" components. 963 "``..``" components.
963 964
964 Directly editing the path string is not really 965 Directly editing the path string is not really necessary when looking
965 up a path, and discarding early components is 966 up a path, and discarding early components is pointless as they aren't
966 looked at anyway. Keeping track of all remain 967 looked at anyway. Keeping track of all remaining components is
967 important, but they can of course be kept sepa 968 important, but they can of course be kept separately; there is no need
968 to concatenate them. As one symlink may easil 969 to concatenate them. As one symlink may easily refer to another,
969 which in turn can refer to a third, we may nee 970 which in turn can refer to a third, we may need to keep the remaining
970 components of several paths, each to be proces 971 components of several paths, each to be processed when the preceding
971 ones are completed. These path remnants are k 972 ones are completed. These path remnants are kept on a stack of
972 limited size. 973 limited size.
973 974
974 There are two reasons for placing limits on ho 975 There are two reasons for placing limits on how many symlinks can
975 occur in a single path lookup. The most obvio 976 occur in a single path lookup. The most obvious is to avoid loops.
976 If a symlink referred to itself either directl 977 If a symlink referred to itself either directly or through
977 intermediaries, then following the symlink can 978 intermediaries, then following the symlink can never complete
978 successfully - the error ``ELOOP`` must be ret 979 successfully - the error ``ELOOP`` must be returned. Loops can be
979 detected without imposing limits, but limits a 980 detected without imposing limits, but limits are the simplest solution
980 and, given the second reason for restriction, 981 and, given the second reason for restriction, quite sufficient.
981 982
982 .. _outlined recently: http://thread.gmane.org 983 .. _outlined recently: http://thread.gmane.org/gmane.linux.kernel/1934390/focus=1934550
983 984
984 The second reason was `outlined recently`_ by 985 The second reason was `outlined recently`_ by Linus:
985 986
986 Because it's a latency and DoS issue too. W 987 Because it's a latency and DoS issue too. We need to react well to
987 true loops, but also to "very deep" non-loo 988 true loops, but also to "very deep" non-loops. It's not about memory
988 use, it's about users triggering unreasonab 989 use, it's about users triggering unreasonable CPU resources.
989 990
990 Linux imposes a limit on the length of any pat 991 Linux imposes a limit on the length of any pathname: ``PATH_MAX``, which
991 is 4096. There are a number of reasons for th 992 is 4096. There are a number of reasons for this limit; not letting the
992 kernel spend too much time on just one path is 993 kernel spend too much time on just one path is one of them. With
993 symbolic links you can effectively generate mu 994 symbolic links you can effectively generate much longer paths so some
994 sort of limit is needed for the same reason. 995 sort of limit is needed for the same reason. Linux imposes a limit of
995 at most 40 (MAXSYMLINKS) symlinks in any one p !! 996 at most 40 symlinks in any one path lookup. It previously imposed a
996 a further limit of eight on the maximum depth !! 997 further limit of eight on the maximum depth of recursion, but that was
997 raised to 40 when a separate stack was impleme 998 raised to 40 when a separate stack was implemented, so there is now
998 just the one limit. 999 just the one limit.
999 1000
1000 The ``nameidata`` structure that we met in an 1001 The ``nameidata`` structure that we met in an earlier article contains a
1001 small stack that can be used to store the rem 1002 small stack that can be used to store the remaining part of up to two
1002 symlinks. In many cases this will be suffici 1003 symlinks. In many cases this will be sufficient. If it isn't, a
1003 separate stack is allocated with room for 40 1004 separate stack is allocated with room for 40 symlinks. Pathname
1004 lookup will never exceed that stack as, once 1005 lookup will never exceed that stack as, once the 40th symlink is
1005 detected, an error is returned. 1006 detected, an error is returned.
1006 1007
1007 It might seem that the name remnants are all 1008 It might seem that the name remnants are all that needs to be stored on
1008 this stack, but we need a bit more. To see t 1009 this stack, but we need a bit more. To see that, we need to move on to
1009 cache lifetimes. 1010 cache lifetimes.
1010 1011
1011 Storage and lifetime of cached symlinks 1012 Storage and lifetime of cached symlinks
1012 --------------------------------------- 1013 ---------------------------------------
1013 1014
1014 Like other filesystem resources, such as inod 1015 Like other filesystem resources, such as inodes and directory
1015 entries, symlinks are cached by Linux to avoi 1016 entries, symlinks are cached by Linux to avoid repeated costly access
1016 to external storage. It is particularly impo 1017 to external storage. It is particularly important for RCU-walk to be
1017 able to find and temporarily hold onto these 1018 able to find and temporarily hold onto these cached entries, so that
1018 it doesn't need to drop down into REF-walk. 1019 it doesn't need to drop down into REF-walk.
1019 1020
1020 .. _object-oriented design pattern: https://l 1021 .. _object-oriented design pattern: https://lwn.net/Articles/446317/
1021 1022
1022 While each filesystem is free to make its own 1023 While each filesystem is free to make its own choice, symlinks are
1023 typically stored in one of two places. Short 1024 typically stored in one of two places. Short symlinks are often
1024 stored directly in the inode. When a filesys 1025 stored directly in the inode. When a filesystem allocates a ``struct
1025 inode`` it typically allocates extra space to 1026 inode`` it typically allocates extra space to store private data (a
1026 common `object-oriented design pattern`_ in t 1027 common `object-oriented design pattern`_ in the kernel). This will
1027 sometimes include space for a symlink. The o 1028 sometimes include space for a symlink. The other common location is
1028 in the page cache, which normally stores the 1029 in the page cache, which normally stores the content of files. The
1029 pathname in a symlink can be seen as the cont 1030 pathname in a symlink can be seen as the content of that symlink and
1030 can easily be stored in the page cache just l 1031 can easily be stored in the page cache just like file content.
1031 1032
1032 When neither of these is suitable, the next m 1033 When neither of these is suitable, the next most likely scenario is
1033 that the filesystem will allocate some tempor 1034 that the filesystem will allocate some temporary memory and copy or
1034 construct the symlink content into that memor 1035 construct the symlink content into that memory whenever it is needed.
1035 1036
1036 When the symlink is stored in the inode, it h 1037 When the symlink is stored in the inode, it has the same lifetime as
1037 the inode which, itself, is protected by RCU 1038 the inode which, itself, is protected by RCU or by a counted reference
1038 on the dentry. This means that the mechanism 1039 on the dentry. This means that the mechanisms that pathname lookup
1039 uses to access the dcache and icache (inode c 1040 uses to access the dcache and icache (inode cache) safely are quite
1040 sufficient for accessing some cached symlinks 1041 sufficient for accessing some cached symlinks safely. In these cases,
1041 the ``i_link`` pointer in the inode is set to 1042 the ``i_link`` pointer in the inode is set to point to wherever the
1042 symlink is stored and it can be accessed dire 1043 symlink is stored and it can be accessed directly whenever needed.
1043 1044
1044 When the symlink is stored in the page cache 1045 When the symlink is stored in the page cache or elsewhere, the
1045 situation is not so straightforward. A refer 1046 situation is not so straightforward. A reference on a dentry or even
1046 on an inode does not imply any reference on c 1047 on an inode does not imply any reference on cached pages of that
1047 inode, and even an ``rcu_read_lock()`` is not 1048 inode, and even an ``rcu_read_lock()`` is not sufficient to ensure that
1048 a page will not disappear. So for these syml 1049 a page will not disappear. So for these symlinks the pathname lookup
1049 code needs to ask the filesystem to provide a 1050 code needs to ask the filesystem to provide a stable reference and,
1050 significantly, needs to release that referenc 1051 significantly, needs to release that reference when it is finished
1051 with it. 1052 with it.
1052 1053
1053 Taking a reference to a cache page is often p 1054 Taking a reference to a cache page is often possible even in RCU-walk
1054 mode. It does require making changes to memo 1055 mode. It does require making changes to memory, which is best avoided,
1055 but that isn't necessarily a big cost and it 1056 but that isn't necessarily a big cost and it is better than dropping
1056 out of RCU-walk mode completely. Even filesy 1057 out of RCU-walk mode completely. Even filesystems that allocate
1057 space to copy the symlink into can use ``GFP_ 1058 space to copy the symlink into can use ``GFP_ATOMIC`` to often successfully
1058 allocate memory without the need to drop out 1059 allocate memory without the need to drop out of RCU-walk. If a
1059 filesystem cannot successfully get a referenc 1060 filesystem cannot successfully get a reference in RCU-walk mode, it
1060 must return ``-ECHILD`` and ``unlazy_walk()`` 1061 must return ``-ECHILD`` and ``unlazy_walk()`` will be called to return to
1061 REF-walk mode in which the filesystem is allo 1062 REF-walk mode in which the filesystem is allowed to sleep.
1062 1063
1063 The place for all this to happen is the ``i_o !! 1064 The place for all this to happen is the ``i_op->follow_link()`` inode
1064 method. This is called both in RCU-walk and R !! 1065 method. In the present mainline code this is never actually called in
1065 ``dentry*`` argument is NULL, ``->get_link()` !! 1066 RCU-walk mode as the rewrite is not quite complete. It is likely that
1066 RCU-walk. Much like the ``i_op->permission() !! 1067 in a future release this method will be passed an ``inode`` pointer when
1067 looked at previously, ``->get_link()`` would !! 1068 called in RCU-walk mode so it both (1) knows to be careful, and (2) has the
>> 1069 validated pointer. Much like the ``i_op->permission()`` method we
>> 1070 looked at previously, ``->follow_link()`` would need to be careful that
1068 all the data structures it references are saf 1071 all the data structures it references are safe to be accessed while
1069 holding no counted reference, only the RCU lo !! 1072 holding no counted reference, only the RCU lock. Though getting a
1070 ``struct delayed_called`` will be passed to ` !! 1073 reference with ``->follow_link()`` is not yet done in RCU-walk mode, the
1071 file systems can set their own put_link funct !! 1074 code is ready to release the reference when that does happen.
1072 set_delayed_call(). Later on, when VFS wants !! 1075
1073 do_delayed_call() to invoke that callback fun !! 1076 This need to drop the reference to a symlink adds significant
>> 1077 complexity. It requires a reference to the inode so that the
>> 1078 ``i_op->put_link()`` inode operation can be called. In REF-walk, that
>> 1079 reference is kept implicitly through a reference to the dentry, so
>> 1080 keeping the ``struct path`` of the symlink is easiest. For RCU-walk,
>> 1081 the pointer to the inode is kept separately. To allow switching from
>> 1082 RCU-walk back to REF-walk in the middle of processing nested symlinks
>> 1083 we also need the seq number for the dentry so we can confirm that
>> 1084 switching back was safe.
>> 1085
>> 1086 Finally, when providing a reference to a symlink, the filesystem also
>> 1087 provides an opaque "cookie" that must be passed to ``->put_link()`` so that it
>> 1088 knows what to free. This might be the allocated memory area, or a
>> 1089 pointer to the ``struct page`` in the page cache, or something else
>> 1090 completely. Only the filesystem knows what it is.
1074 1091
1075 In order for the reference to each symlink to 1092 In order for the reference to each symlink to be dropped when the walk completes,
1076 whether in RCU-walk or REF-walk, the symlink 1093 whether in RCU-walk or REF-walk, the symlink stack needs to contain,
1077 along with the path remnants: 1094 along with the path remnants:
1078 1095
1079 - the ``struct path`` to provide a reference !! 1096 - the ``struct path`` to provide a reference to the inode in REF-walk
1080 - the ``const char *`` to provide a reference !! 1097 - the ``struct inode *`` to provide a reference to the inode in RCU-walk
1081 - the ``seq`` to allow the path to be safely 1098 - the ``seq`` to allow the path to be safely switched from RCU-walk to REF-walk
1082 - the ``struct delayed_call`` for later invoc !! 1099 - the ``cookie`` that tells ``->put_path()`` what to put.
1083 1100
1084 This means that each entry in the symlink sta 1101 This means that each entry in the symlink stack needs to hold five
1085 pointers and an integer instead of just one p 1102 pointers and an integer instead of just one pointer (the path
1086 remnant). On a 64-bit system, this is about 1103 remnant). On a 64-bit system, this is about 40 bytes per entry;
1087 with 40 entries it adds up to 1600 bytes tota 1104 with 40 entries it adds up to 1600 bytes total, which is less than
1088 half a page. So it might seem like a lot, bu 1105 half a page. So it might seem like a lot, but is by no means
1089 excessive. 1106 excessive.
1090 1107
1091 Note that, in a given stack frame, the path r 1108 Note that, in a given stack frame, the path remnant (``name``) is not
1092 part of the symlink that the other fields ref 1109 part of the symlink that the other fields refer to. It is the remnant
1093 to be followed once that symlink has been ful 1110 to be followed once that symlink has been fully parsed.
1094 1111
1095 Following the symlink 1112 Following the symlink
1096 --------------------- 1113 ---------------------
1097 1114
1098 The main loop in ``link_path_walk()`` iterate 1115 The main loop in ``link_path_walk()`` iterates seamlessly over all
1099 components in the path and all of the non-fin 1116 components in the path and all of the non-final symlinks. As symlinks
1100 are processed, the ``name`` pointer is adjust 1117 are processed, the ``name`` pointer is adjusted to point to a new
1101 symlink, or is restored from the stack, so th 1118 symlink, or is restored from the stack, so that much of the loop
1102 doesn't need to notice. Getting this ``name` 1119 doesn't need to notice. Getting this ``name`` variable on and off the
1103 stack is very straightforward; pushing and po 1120 stack is very straightforward; pushing and popping the references is
1104 a little more complex. 1121 a little more complex.
1105 1122
1106 When a symlink is found, walk_component() cal !! 1123 When a symlink is found, ``walk_component()`` returns the value ``1``
1107 which returns the link from the filesystem. !! 1124 (``0`` is returned for any other sort of success, and a negative number
1108 Providing that operation is successful, the o !! 1125 is, as usual, an error indicator). This causes ``get_link()`` to be
1109 stack, and the new value is used as the ``nam !! 1126 called; it then gets the link from the filesystem. Providing that
>> 1127 operation is successful, the old path ``name`` is placed on the stack,
>> 1128 and the new value is used as the ``name`` for a while. When the end of
1110 the path is found (i.e. ``*name`` is ``'\0'`` 1129 the path is found (i.e. ``*name`` is ``'\0'``) the old ``name`` is restored
1111 off the stack and path walking continues. 1130 off the stack and path walking continues.
1112 1131
1113 Pushing and popping the reference pointers (i 1132 Pushing and popping the reference pointers (inode, cookie, etc.) is more
1114 complex in part because of the desire to hand 1133 complex in part because of the desire to handle tail recursion. When
1115 the last component of a symlink itself points 1134 the last component of a symlink itself points to a symlink, we
1116 want to pop the symlink-just-completed off th 1135 want to pop the symlink-just-completed off the stack before pushing
1117 the symlink-just-found to avoid leaving empty 1136 the symlink-just-found to avoid leaving empty path remnants that would
1118 just get in the way. 1137 just get in the way.
1119 1138
1120 It is most convenient to push the new symlink 1139 It is most convenient to push the new symlink references onto the
1121 stack in ``walk_component()`` immediately whe 1140 stack in ``walk_component()`` immediately when the symlink is found;
1122 ``walk_component()`` is also the last piece o 1141 ``walk_component()`` is also the last piece of code that needs to look at the
1123 old symlink as it walks that last component. 1142 old symlink as it walks that last component. So it is quite
1124 convenient for ``walk_component()`` to releas 1143 convenient for ``walk_component()`` to release the old symlink and pop
1125 the references just before pushing the refere 1144 the references just before pushing the reference information for the
1126 new symlink. It is guided in this by three f !! 1145 new symlink. It is guided in this by two flags; ``WALK_GET``, which
1127 forbids it from following a symlink if it fin !! 1146 gives it permission to follow a symlink if it finds one, and
1128 which indicates that it is yet too early to r !! 1147 ``WALK_PUT``, which tells it to release the current symlink after it has been
1129 current symlink, and ``WALK_TRAILING`` which !! 1148 followed. ``WALK_PUT`` is tested first, leading to a call to
1130 component of the lookup, so we will check use !! 1149 ``put_link()``. ``WALK_GET`` is tested subsequently (by
1131 decide whether follow it when it is a symlink !! 1150 ``should_follow_link()``) leading to a call to ``pick_link()`` which sets
1132 check if we have privilege to follow it. !! 1151 up the stack frame.
1133 1152
1134 Symlinks with no final component 1153 Symlinks with no final component
1135 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1154 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1136 1155
1137 A pair of special-case symlinks deserve a lit 1156 A pair of special-case symlinks deserve a little further explanation.
1138 Both result in a new ``struct path`` (with mo 1157 Both result in a new ``struct path`` (with mount and dentry) being set
1139 up in the ``nameidata``, and result in pick_l !! 1158 up in the ``nameidata``, and result in ``get_link()`` returning ``NULL``.
1140 1159
1141 The more obvious case is a symlink to "``/``" 1160 The more obvious case is a symlink to "``/``". All symlinks starting
1142 with "``/``" are detected in pick_link() whic !! 1161 with "``/``" are detected in ``get_link()`` which resets the ``nameidata``
1143 to point to the effective filesystem root. I 1162 to point to the effective filesystem root. If the symlink only
1144 contains "``/``" then there is nothing more t 1163 contains "``/``" then there is nothing more to do, no components at all,
1145 so ``NULL`` is returned to indicate that the 1164 so ``NULL`` is returned to indicate that the symlink can be released and
1146 the stack frame discarded. 1165 the stack frame discarded.
1147 1166
1148 The other case involves things in ``/proc`` t 1167 The other case involves things in ``/proc`` that look like symlinks but
1149 aren't really (and are therefore commonly ref 1168 aren't really (and are therefore commonly referred to as "magic-links")::
1150 1169
1151 $ ls -l /proc/self/fd/1 1170 $ ls -l /proc/self/fd/1
1152 lrwx------ 1 neilb neilb 64 Jun 13 10:19 1171 lrwx------ 1 neilb neilb 64 Jun 13 10:19 /proc/self/fd/1 -> /dev/pts/4
1153 1172
1154 Every open file descriptor in any process is 1173 Every open file descriptor in any process is represented in ``/proc`` by
1155 something that looks like a symlink. It is r 1174 something that looks like a symlink. It is really a reference to the
1156 target file, not just the name of it. When y 1175 target file, not just the name of it. When you ``readlink`` these
1157 objects you get a name that might refer to th 1176 objects you get a name that might refer to the same file - unless it
1158 has been unlinked or mounted over. When ``wa 1177 has been unlinked or mounted over. When ``walk_component()`` follows
1159 one of these, the ``->get_link()`` method in !! 1178 one of these, the ``->follow_link()`` method in "procfs" doesn't return
1160 a string name, but instead calls nd_jump_link !! 1179 a string name, but instead calls ``nd_jump_link()`` which updates the
1161 ``nameidata`` in place to point to that targe !! 1180 ``nameidata`` in place to point to that target. ``->follow_link()`` then
1162 returns ``NULL``. Again there is no final co !! 1181 returns ``NULL``. Again there is no final component and ``get_link()``
1163 returns ``NULL``. !! 1182 reports this by leaving the ``last_type`` field of ``nameidata`` as
>> 1183 ``LAST_BIND``.
1164 1184
1165 Following the symlink in the final component 1185 Following the symlink in the final component
1166 -------------------------------------------- 1186 --------------------------------------------
1167 1187
1168 All this leads to ``link_path_walk()`` walkin 1188 All this leads to ``link_path_walk()`` walking down every component, and
1169 following all symbolic links it finds, until 1189 following all symbolic links it finds, until it reaches the final
1170 component. This is just returned in the ``la 1190 component. This is just returned in the ``last`` field of ``nameidata``.
1171 For some callers, this is all they need; they 1191 For some callers, this is all they need; they want to create that
1172 ``last`` name if it doesn't exist or give an 1192 ``last`` name if it doesn't exist or give an error if it does. Other
1173 callers will want to follow a symlink if one 1193 callers will want to follow a symlink if one is found, and possibly
1174 apply special handling to the last component 1194 apply special handling to the last component of that symlink, rather
1175 than just the last component of the original 1195 than just the last component of the original file name. These callers
1176 potentially need to call ``link_path_walk()`` 1196 potentially need to call ``link_path_walk()`` again and again on
1177 successive symlinks until one is found that d 1197 successive symlinks until one is found that doesn't point to another
1178 symlink. 1198 symlink.
1179 1199
1180 This case is handled by relevant callers of l !! 1200 This case is handled by the relevant caller of ``link_path_walk()``, such as
1181 path_lookupat(), path_openat() using a loop t !! 1201 ``path_lookupat()`` using a loop that calls ``link_path_walk()``, and then
1182 and then handles the final component by calli !! 1202 handles the final component. If the final component is a symlink
1183 lookup_last(). If it is a symlink that needs !! 1203 that needs to be followed, then ``trailing_symlink()`` is called to set
1184 open_last_lookups() or lookup_last() will set !! 1204 things up properly and the loop repeats, calling ``link_path_walk()``
1185 return the path so that the loop repeats, cal !! 1205 again. This could loop as many as 40 times if the last component of
1186 link_path_walk() again. This could loop as m !! 1206 each symlink is another symlink.
1187 component of each symlink is another symlink. !! 1207
1188 !! 1208 The various functions that examine the final component and possibly
1189 Of the various functions that examine the fin !! 1209 report that it is a symlink are ``lookup_last()``, ``mountpoint_last()``
1190 open_last_lookups() is the most interesting a !! 1210 and ``do_last()``, each of which use the same convention as
1191 with do_open() for opening a file. Part of o !! 1211 ``walk_component()`` of returning ``1`` if a symlink was found that needs
1192 with ``i_rwsem`` held and this part is in a s !! 1212 to be followed.
1193 !! 1213
1194 Explaining open_last_lookups() and do_open() !! 1214 Of these, ``do_last()`` is the most interesting as it is used for
1195 of this article, but a few highlights should !! 1215 opening a file. Part of ``do_last()`` runs with ``i_rwsem`` held and this
1196 the code. !! 1216 part is in a separate function: ``lookup_open()``.
>> 1217
>> 1218 Explaining ``do_last()`` completely is beyond the scope of this article,
>> 1219 but a few highlights should help those interested in exploring the
>> 1220 code.
1197 1221
1198 1. Rather than just finding the target file, !! 1222 1. Rather than just finding the target file, ``do_last()`` needs to open
1199 open_last_lookup() to open <<
1200 it. If the file was found in the dcache, 1223 it. If the file was found in the dcache, then ``vfs_open()`` is used for
1201 this. If not, then ``lookup_open()`` will 1224 this. If not, then ``lookup_open()`` will either call ``atomic_open()`` (if
1202 the filesystem provides it) to combine the 1225 the filesystem provides it) to combine the final lookup with the open, or
1203 will perform the separate ``i_op->lookup() !! 1226 will perform the separate ``lookup_real()`` and ``vfs_create()`` steps
1204 directly. In the later case the actual "o 1227 directly. In the later case the actual "open" of this newly found or
1205 created file will be performed by vfs_open !! 1228 created file will be performed by ``vfs_open()``, just as if the name
1206 were found in the dcache. 1229 were found in the dcache.
1207 1230
1208 2. vfs_open() can fail with ``-EOPENSTALE`` i !! 1231 2. ``vfs_open()`` can fail with ``-EOPENSTALE`` if the cached information
1209 wasn't quite current enough. If it's in R !! 1232 wasn't quite current enough. Rather than restarting the lookup from
1210 otherwise ``-ESTALE`` is returned. When ` !! 1233 the top with ``LOOKUP_REVAL`` set, ``lookup_open()`` is called instead,
1211 retry with ``LOOKUP_REVAL`` flag set. !! 1234 giving the filesystem a chance to resolve small inconsistencies.
>> 1235 If that doesn't work, only then is the lookup restarted from the top.
1212 1236
1213 3. An open with O_CREAT **does** follow a sym 1237 3. An open with O_CREAT **does** follow a symlink in the final component,
1214 unlike other creation system calls (like ` 1238 unlike other creation system calls (like ``mkdir``). So the sequence::
1215 1239
1216 ln -s bar /tmp/foo 1240 ln -s bar /tmp/foo
1217 echo hello > /tmp/foo 1241 echo hello > /tmp/foo
1218 1242
1219 will create a file called ``/tmp/bar``. T 1243 will create a file called ``/tmp/bar``. This is not permitted if
1220 ``O_EXCL`` is set but otherwise is handled 1244 ``O_EXCL`` is set but otherwise is handled for an O_CREAT open much
1221 like for a non-creating open: lookup_last( !! 1245 like for a non-creating open: ``should_follow_link()`` returns ``1``, and
1222 returns a non ``NULL`` value, and link_pat !! 1246 so does ``do_last()`` so that ``trailing_symlink()`` gets called and the
1223 open process continues on the symlink that 1247 open process continues on the symlink that was found.
1224 1248
1225 Updating the access time 1249 Updating the access time
1226 ------------------------ 1250 ------------------------
1227 1251
1228 We previously said of RCU-walk that it would 1252 We previously said of RCU-walk that it would "take no locks, increment
1229 no counts, leave no footprints." We have sin 1253 no counts, leave no footprints." We have since seen that some
1230 "footprints" can be needed when handling syml 1254 "footprints" can be needed when handling symlinks as a counted
1231 reference (or even a memory allocation) may b 1255 reference (or even a memory allocation) may be needed. But these
1232 footprints are best kept to a minimum. 1256 footprints are best kept to a minimum.
1233 1257
1234 One other place where walking down a symlink 1258 One other place where walking down a symlink can involve leaving
1235 footprints in a way that doesn't affect direc 1259 footprints in a way that doesn't affect directories is in updating access times.
1236 In Unix (and Linux) every filesystem object h 1260 In Unix (and Linux) every filesystem object has a "last accessed
1237 time", or "``atime``". Passing through a dir 1261 time", or "``atime``". Passing through a directory to access a file
1238 within is not considered to be an access for 1262 within is not considered to be an access for the purposes of
1239 ``atime``; only listing the contents of a dir 1263 ``atime``; only listing the contents of a directory can update its ``atime``.
1240 Symlinks are different it seems. Both readin 1264 Symlinks are different it seems. Both reading a symlink (with ``readlink()``)
1241 and looking up a symlink on the way to some o 1265 and looking up a symlink on the way to some other destination can
1242 update the atime on that symlink. 1266 update the atime on that symlink.
1243 1267
1244 .. _clearest statement: https://pubs.opengrou 1268 .. _clearest statement: https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9699919799/basedefs/V1_chap04.html#tag_04_08
1245 1269
1246 It is not clear why this is the case; POSIX h 1270 It is not clear why this is the case; POSIX has little to say on the
1247 subject. The `clearest statement`_ is that, 1271 subject. The `clearest statement`_ is that, if a particular implementation
1248 updates a timestamp in a place not specified 1272 updates a timestamp in a place not specified by POSIX, this must be
1249 documented "except that any changes caused by 1273 documented "except that any changes caused by pathname resolution need
1250 not be documented". This seems to imply that 1274 not be documented". This seems to imply that POSIX doesn't really
1251 care about access-time updates during pathnam 1275 care about access-time updates during pathname lookup.
1252 1276
1253 .. _Linux 1.3.87: https://git.kernel.org/cgit 1277 .. _Linux 1.3.87: https://git.kernel.org/cgit/linux/kernel/git/history/history.git/diff/fs/ext2/symlink.c?id=f806c6db77b8eaa6e00dcfb6b567706feae8dbb8
1254 1278
1255 An examination of history shows that prior to 1279 An examination of history shows that prior to `Linux 1.3.87`_, the ext2
1256 filesystem, at least, didn't update atime whe 1280 filesystem, at least, didn't update atime when following a link.
1257 Unfortunately we have no record of why that b 1281 Unfortunately we have no record of why that behavior was changed.
1258 1282
1259 In any case, access time must now be updated 1283 In any case, access time must now be updated and that operation can be
1260 quite complex. Trying to stay in RCU-walk wh 1284 quite complex. Trying to stay in RCU-walk while doing it is best
1261 avoided. Fortunately it is often permitted t 1285 avoided. Fortunately it is often permitted to skip the ``atime``
1262 update. Because ``atime`` updates cause perf 1286 update. Because ``atime`` updates cause performance problems in various
1263 areas, Linux supports the ``relatime`` mount 1287 areas, Linux supports the ``relatime`` mount option, which generally
1264 limits the updates of ``atime`` to once per d 1288 limits the updates of ``atime`` to once per day on files that aren't
1265 being changed (and symlinks never change once 1289 being changed (and symlinks never change once created). Even without
1266 ``relatime``, many filesystems record ``atime 1290 ``relatime``, many filesystems record ``atime`` with a one-second
1267 granularity, so only one update per second is 1291 granularity, so only one update per second is required.
1268 1292
1269 It is easy to test if an ``atime`` update is 1293 It is easy to test if an ``atime`` update is needed while in RCU-walk
1270 mode and, if it isn't, the update can be skip 1294 mode and, if it isn't, the update can be skipped and RCU-walk mode
1271 continues. Only when an ``atime`` update is 1295 continues. Only when an ``atime`` update is actually required does the
1272 path walk drop down to REF-walk. All of this 1296 path walk drop down to REF-walk. All of this is handled in the
1273 ``get_link()`` function. 1297 ``get_link()`` function.
1274 1298
1275 A few flags 1299 A few flags
1276 ----------- 1300 -----------
1277 1301
1278 A suitable way to wrap up this tour of pathna 1302 A suitable way to wrap up this tour of pathname walking is to list
1279 the various flags that can be stored in the ` 1303 the various flags that can be stored in the ``nameidata`` to guide the
1280 lookup process. Many of these are only meani 1304 lookup process. Many of these are only meaningful on the final
1281 component, others reflect the current state o 1305 component, others reflect the current state of the pathname lookup, and some
1282 apply restrictions to all path components enc 1306 apply restrictions to all path components encountered in the path lookup.
1283 1307
1284 And then there is ``LOOKUP_EMPTY``, which doe 1308 And then there is ``LOOKUP_EMPTY``, which doesn't fit conceptually with
1285 the others. If this is not set, an empty pat 1309 the others. If this is not set, an empty pathname causes an error
1286 very early on. If it is set, empty pathnames 1310 very early on. If it is set, empty pathnames are not considered to be
1287 an error. 1311 an error.
1288 1312
1289 Global state flags 1313 Global state flags
1290 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1314 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1291 1315
1292 We have already met two global state flags: ` 1316 We have already met two global state flags: ``LOOKUP_RCU`` and
1293 ``LOOKUP_REVAL``. These select between one o 1317 ``LOOKUP_REVAL``. These select between one of three overall approaches
1294 to lookup: RCU-walk, REF-walk, and REF-walk w 1318 to lookup: RCU-walk, REF-walk, and REF-walk with forced revalidation.
1295 1319
1296 ``LOOKUP_PARENT`` indicates that the final co 1320 ``LOOKUP_PARENT`` indicates that the final component hasn't been reached
1297 yet. This is primarily used to tell the audi 1321 yet. This is primarily used to tell the audit subsystem the full
1298 context of a particular access being audited. 1322 context of a particular access being audited.
1299 1323
1300 ``ND_ROOT_PRESET`` indicates that the ``root` !! 1324 ``LOOKUP_ROOT`` indicates that the ``root`` field in the ``nameidata`` was
1301 provided by the caller, so it shouldn't be re 1325 provided by the caller, so it shouldn't be released when it is no
1302 longer needed. 1326 longer needed.
1303 1327
1304 ``ND_JUMPED`` means that the current dentry w !! 1328 ``LOOKUP_JUMPED`` means that the current dentry was chosen not because
1305 it had the right name but for some other reas 1329 it had the right name but for some other reason. This happens when
1306 following "``..``", following a symlink to `` 1330 following "``..``", following a symlink to ``/``, crossing a mount point
1307 or accessing a "``/proc/$PID/fd/$FD``" symlin 1331 or accessing a "``/proc/$PID/fd/$FD``" symlink (also known as a "magic
1308 link"). In this case the filesystem has not b 1332 link"). In this case the filesystem has not been asked to revalidate the
1309 name (with ``d_revalidate()``). In such case 1333 name (with ``d_revalidate()``). In such cases the inode may still need
1310 to be revalidated, so ``d_op->d_weak_revalida 1334 to be revalidated, so ``d_op->d_weak_revalidate()`` is called if
1311 ``ND_JUMPED`` is set when the look completes !! 1335 ``LOOKUP_JUMPED`` is set when the look completes - which may be at the
1312 final component or, when creating, unlinking, 1336 final component or, when creating, unlinking, or renaming, at the penultimate component.
1313 1337
1314 Resolution-restriction flags 1338 Resolution-restriction flags
1315 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1339 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1316 1340
1317 In order to allow userspace to protect itself 1341 In order to allow userspace to protect itself against certain race conditions
1318 and attack scenarios involving changing path 1342 and attack scenarios involving changing path components, a series of flags are
1319 available which apply restrictions to all pat 1343 available which apply restrictions to all path components encountered during
1320 path lookup. These flags are exposed through 1344 path lookup. These flags are exposed through ``openat2()``'s ``resolve`` field.
1321 1345
1322 ``LOOKUP_NO_SYMLINKS`` blocks all symlink tra 1346 ``LOOKUP_NO_SYMLINKS`` blocks all symlink traversals (including magic-links).
1323 This is distinctly different from ``LOOKUP_FO 1347 This is distinctly different from ``LOOKUP_FOLLOW``, because the latter only
1324 relates to restricting the following of trail 1348 relates to restricting the following of trailing symlinks.
1325 1349
1326 ``LOOKUP_NO_MAGICLINKS`` blocks all magic-lin 1350 ``LOOKUP_NO_MAGICLINKS`` blocks all magic-link traversals. Filesystems must
1327 ensure that they return errors from ``nd_jump 1351 ensure that they return errors from ``nd_jump_link()``, because that is how
1328 ``LOOKUP_NO_MAGICLINKS`` and other magic-link 1352 ``LOOKUP_NO_MAGICLINKS`` and other magic-link restrictions are implemented.
1329 1353
1330 ``LOOKUP_NO_XDEV`` blocks all ``vfsmount`` tr 1354 ``LOOKUP_NO_XDEV`` blocks all ``vfsmount`` traversals (this includes both
1331 bind-mounts and ordinary mounts). Note that t 1355 bind-mounts and ordinary mounts). Note that the ``vfsmount`` which contains the
1332 lookup is determined by the first mountpoint 1356 lookup is determined by the first mountpoint the path lookup reaches --
1333 absolute paths start with the ``vfsmount`` of 1357 absolute paths start with the ``vfsmount`` of ``/``, and relative paths start
1334 with the ``dfd``'s ``vfsmount``. Magic-links 1358 with the ``dfd``'s ``vfsmount``. Magic-links are only permitted if the
1335 ``vfsmount`` of the path is unchanged. 1359 ``vfsmount`` of the path is unchanged.
1336 1360
1337 ``LOOKUP_BENEATH`` blocks any path components 1361 ``LOOKUP_BENEATH`` blocks any path components which resolve outside the
1338 starting point of the resolution. This is don 1362 starting point of the resolution. This is done by blocking ``nd_jump_root()``
1339 as well as blocking ".." if it would jump out 1363 as well as blocking ".." if it would jump outside the starting point.
1340 ``rename_lock`` and ``mount_lock`` are used t 1364 ``rename_lock`` and ``mount_lock`` are used to detect attacks against the
1341 resolution of "..". Magic-links are also bloc 1365 resolution of "..". Magic-links are also blocked.
1342 1366
1343 ``LOOKUP_IN_ROOT`` resolves all path componen 1367 ``LOOKUP_IN_ROOT`` resolves all path components as though the starting point
1344 were the filesystem root. ``nd_jump_root()`` 1368 were the filesystem root. ``nd_jump_root()`` brings the resolution back to
1345 the starting point, and ".." at the starting 1369 the starting point, and ".." at the starting point will act as a no-op. As with
1346 ``LOOKUP_BENEATH``, ``rename_lock`` and ``mou 1370 ``LOOKUP_BENEATH``, ``rename_lock`` and ``mount_lock`` are used to detect
1347 attacks against ".." resolution. Magic-links 1371 attacks against ".." resolution. Magic-links are also blocked.
1348 1372
1349 Final-component flags 1373 Final-component flags
1350 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 1374 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
1351 1375
1352 Some of these flags are only set when the fin 1376 Some of these flags are only set when the final component is being
1353 considered. Others are only checked for when 1377 considered. Others are only checked for when considering that final
1354 component. 1378 component.
1355 1379
1356 ``LOOKUP_AUTOMOUNT`` ensures that, if the fin 1380 ``LOOKUP_AUTOMOUNT`` ensures that, if the final component is an automount
1357 point, then the mount is triggered. Some ope 1381 point, then the mount is triggered. Some operations would trigger it
1358 anyway, but operations like ``stat()`` delibe 1382 anyway, but operations like ``stat()`` deliberately don't. ``statfs()``
1359 needs to trigger the mount but otherwise beha 1383 needs to trigger the mount but otherwise behaves a lot like ``stat()``, so
1360 it sets ``LOOKUP_AUTOMOUNT``, as does "``quot 1384 it sets ``LOOKUP_AUTOMOUNT``, as does "``quotactl()``" and the handling of
1361 "``mount --bind``". 1385 "``mount --bind``".
1362 1386
1363 ``LOOKUP_FOLLOW`` has a similar function to ` 1387 ``LOOKUP_FOLLOW`` has a similar function to ``LOOKUP_AUTOMOUNT`` but for
1364 symlinks. Some system calls set or clear it 1388 symlinks. Some system calls set or clear it implicitly, while
1365 others have API flags such as ``AT_SYMLINK_FO 1389 others have API flags such as ``AT_SYMLINK_FOLLOW`` and
1366 ``UMOUNT_NOFOLLOW`` to control it. Its effec 1390 ``UMOUNT_NOFOLLOW`` to control it. Its effect is similar to
1367 ``WALK_GET`` that we already met, but it is u 1391 ``WALK_GET`` that we already met, but it is used in a different way.
1368 1392
1369 ``LOOKUP_DIRECTORY`` insists that the final c 1393 ``LOOKUP_DIRECTORY`` insists that the final component is a directory.
1370 Various callers set this and it is also set w 1394 Various callers set this and it is also set when the final component
1371 is found to be followed by a slash. 1395 is found to be followed by a slash.
1372 1396
1373 Finally ``LOOKUP_OPEN``, ``LOOKUP_CREATE``, ` 1397 Finally ``LOOKUP_OPEN``, ``LOOKUP_CREATE``, ``LOOKUP_EXCL``, and
1374 ``LOOKUP_RENAME_TARGET`` are not used directl 1398 ``LOOKUP_RENAME_TARGET`` are not used directly by the VFS but are made
1375 available to the filesystem and particularly 1399 available to the filesystem and particularly the ``->d_revalidate()``
1376 method. A filesystem can choose not to bothe 1400 method. A filesystem can choose not to bother revalidating too hard
1377 if it knows that it will be asked to open or 1401 if it knows that it will be asked to open or create the file soon.
1378 These flags were previously useful for ``->lo 1402 These flags were previously useful for ``->lookup()`` too but with the
1379 introduction of ``->atomic_open()`` they are 1403 introduction of ``->atomic_open()`` they are less relevant there.
1380 1404
1381 End of the road 1405 End of the road
1382 --------------- 1406 ---------------
1383 1407
1384 Despite its complexity, all this pathname loo 1408 Despite its complexity, all this pathname lookup code appears to be
1385 in good shape - various parts are certainly e 1409 in good shape - various parts are certainly easier to understand now
1386 than even a couple of releases ago. But that 1410 than even a couple of releases ago. But that doesn't mean it is
1387 "finished". As already mentioned, RCU-walk 1411 "finished". As already mentioned, RCU-walk currently only follows
1388 symlinks that are stored in the inode so, whi 1412 symlinks that are stored in the inode so, while it handles many ext4
1389 symlinks, it doesn't help with NFS, XFS, or B 1413 symlinks, it doesn't help with NFS, XFS, or Btrfs. That support
1390 is not likely to be long delayed. 1414 is not likely to be long delayed.
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