1 .. _codingstyle: 1 .. _codingstyle:
2 2
3 Linux kernel coding style 3 Linux kernel coding style
4 ========================= 4 =========================
5 5
6 This is a short document describing the prefer 6 This is a short document describing the preferred coding style for the
7 linux kernel. Coding style is very personal, 7 linux kernel. Coding style is very personal, and I won't **force** my
8 views on anybody, but this is what goes for an 8 views on anybody, but this is what goes for anything that I have to be
9 able to maintain, and I'd prefer it for most o 9 able to maintain, and I'd prefer it for most other things too. Please
10 at least consider the points made here. 10 at least consider the points made here.
11 11
12 First off, I'd suggest printing out a copy of 12 First off, I'd suggest printing out a copy of the GNU coding standards,
13 and NOT read it. Burn them, it's a great symb 13 and NOT read it. Burn them, it's a great symbolic gesture.
14 14
15 Anyway, here goes: 15 Anyway, here goes:
16 16
17 17
18 1) Indentation 18 1) Indentation
19 -------------- 19 --------------
20 20
21 Tabs are 8 characters, and thus indentations a 21 Tabs are 8 characters, and thus indentations are also 8 characters.
22 There are heretic movements that try to make i 22 There are heretic movements that try to make indentations 4 (or even 2!)
23 characters deep, and that is akin to trying to 23 characters deep, and that is akin to trying to define the value of PI to
24 be 3. 24 be 3.
25 25
26 Rationale: The whole idea behind indentation i 26 Rationale: The whole idea behind indentation is to clearly define where
27 a block of control starts and ends. Especiall 27 a block of control starts and ends. Especially when you've been looking
28 at your screen for 20 straight hours, you'll f 28 at your screen for 20 straight hours, you'll find it a lot easier to see
29 how the indentation works if you have large in 29 how the indentation works if you have large indentations.
30 30
31 Now, some people will claim that having 8-char 31 Now, some people will claim that having 8-character indentations makes
32 the code move too far to the right, and makes 32 the code move too far to the right, and makes it hard to read on a
33 80-character terminal screen. The answer to t 33 80-character terminal screen. The answer to that is that if you need
34 more than 3 levels of indentation, you're scre 34 more than 3 levels of indentation, you're screwed anyway, and should fix
35 your program. 35 your program.
36 36
37 In short, 8-char indents make things easier to 37 In short, 8-char indents make things easier to read, and have the added
38 benefit of warning you when you're nesting you 38 benefit of warning you when you're nesting your functions too deep.
39 Heed that warning. 39 Heed that warning.
40 40
41 The preferred way to ease multiple indentation 41 The preferred way to ease multiple indentation levels in a switch statement is
42 to align the ``switch`` and its subordinate `` 42 to align the ``switch`` and its subordinate ``case`` labels in the same column
43 instead of ``double-indenting`` the ``case`` l 43 instead of ``double-indenting`` the ``case`` labels. E.g.:
44 44
45 .. code-block:: c 45 .. code-block:: c
46 46
47 switch (suffix) { 47 switch (suffix) {
48 case 'G': 48 case 'G':
49 case 'g': 49 case 'g':
50 mem <<= 30; 50 mem <<= 30;
51 break; 51 break;
52 case 'M': 52 case 'M':
53 case 'm': 53 case 'm':
54 mem <<= 20; 54 mem <<= 20;
55 break; 55 break;
56 case 'K': 56 case 'K':
57 case 'k': 57 case 'k':
58 mem <<= 10; 58 mem <<= 10;
59 fallthrough; 59 fallthrough;
60 default: 60 default:
61 break; 61 break;
62 } 62 }
63 63
64 Don't put multiple statements on a single line 64 Don't put multiple statements on a single line unless you have
65 something to hide: 65 something to hide:
66 66
67 .. code-block:: c 67 .. code-block:: c
68 68
69 if (condition) do_this; 69 if (condition) do_this;
70 do_something_everytime; 70 do_something_everytime;
71 71
72 Don't use commas to avoid using braces: <<
73 <<
74 .. code-block:: c <<
75 <<
76 if (condition) <<
77 do_this(), do_that(); <<
78 <<
79 Always uses braces for multiple statements: <<
80 <<
81 .. code-block:: c <<
82 <<
83 if (condition) { <<
84 do_this(); <<
85 do_that(); <<
86 } <<
87 <<
88 Don't put multiple assignments on a single lin 72 Don't put multiple assignments on a single line either. Kernel coding style
89 is super simple. Avoid tricky expressions. 73 is super simple. Avoid tricky expressions.
90 74
91 <<
92 Outside of comments, documentation and except 75 Outside of comments, documentation and except in Kconfig, spaces are never
93 used for indentation, and the above example is 76 used for indentation, and the above example is deliberately broken.
94 77
95 Get a decent editor and don't leave whitespace 78 Get a decent editor and don't leave whitespace at the end of lines.
96 79
97 80
98 2) Breaking long lines and strings 81 2) Breaking long lines and strings
99 ---------------------------------- 82 ----------------------------------
100 83
101 Coding style is all about readability and main 84 Coding style is all about readability and maintainability using commonly
102 available tools. 85 available tools.
103 86
104 The preferred limit on the length of a single !! 87 The limit on the length of lines is 80 columns and this is a strongly
105 !! 88 preferred limit.
106 Statements longer than 80 columns should be br <<
107 unless exceeding 80 columns significantly incr <<
108 not hide information. <<
109 89
110 Descendants are always substantially shorter t !! 90 Statements longer than 80 columns will be broken into sensible chunks, unless
111 are placed substantially to the right. A very !! 91 exceeding 80 columns significantly increases readability and does not hide
112 is to align descendants to a function open par !! 92 information. Descendants are always substantially shorter than the parent and
113 !! 93 are placed substantially to the right. The same applies to function headers
114 These same rules are applied to function heade !! 94 with a long argument list. However, never break user-visible strings such as
115 !! 95 printk messages, because that breaks the ability to grep for them.
116 However, never break user-visible strings such <<
117 that breaks the ability to grep for them. <<
118 96
119 97
120 3) Placing Braces and Spaces 98 3) Placing Braces and Spaces
121 ---------------------------- 99 ----------------------------
122 100
123 The other issue that always comes up in C styl 101 The other issue that always comes up in C styling is the placement of
124 braces. Unlike the indent size, there are few 102 braces. Unlike the indent size, there are few technical reasons to
125 choose one placement strategy over the other, 103 choose one placement strategy over the other, but the preferred way, as
126 shown to us by the prophets Kernighan and Ritc 104 shown to us by the prophets Kernighan and Ritchie, is to put the opening
127 brace last on the line, and put the closing br 105 brace last on the line, and put the closing brace first, thusly:
128 106
129 .. code-block:: c 107 .. code-block:: c
130 108
131 if (x is true) { 109 if (x is true) {
132 we do y 110 we do y
133 } 111 }
134 112
135 This applies to all non-function statement blo 113 This applies to all non-function statement blocks (if, switch, for,
136 while, do). E.g.: 114 while, do). E.g.:
137 115
138 .. code-block:: c 116 .. code-block:: c
139 117
140 switch (action) { 118 switch (action) {
141 case KOBJ_ADD: 119 case KOBJ_ADD:
142 return "add"; 120 return "add";
143 case KOBJ_REMOVE: 121 case KOBJ_REMOVE:
144 return "remove"; 122 return "remove";
145 case KOBJ_CHANGE: 123 case KOBJ_CHANGE:
146 return "change"; 124 return "change";
147 default: 125 default:
148 return NULL; 126 return NULL;
149 } 127 }
150 128
151 However, there is one special case, namely fun 129 However, there is one special case, namely functions: they have the
152 opening brace at the beginning of the next lin 130 opening brace at the beginning of the next line, thus:
153 131
154 .. code-block:: c 132 .. code-block:: c
155 133
156 int function(int x) 134 int function(int x)
157 { 135 {
158 body of function 136 body of function
159 } 137 }
160 138
161 Heretic people all over the world have claimed 139 Heretic people all over the world have claimed that this inconsistency
162 is ... well ... inconsistent, but all right- 140 is ... well ... inconsistent, but all right-thinking people know that
163 (a) K&R are **right** and (b) K&R are right. 141 (a) K&R are **right** and (b) K&R are right. Besides, functions are
164 special anyway (you can't nest them in C). 142 special anyway (you can't nest them in C).
165 143
166 Note that the closing brace is empty on a line 144 Note that the closing brace is empty on a line of its own, **except** in
167 the cases where it is followed by a continuati 145 the cases where it is followed by a continuation of the same statement,
168 ie a ``while`` in a do-statement or an ``else` 146 ie a ``while`` in a do-statement or an ``else`` in an if-statement, like
169 this: 147 this:
170 148
171 .. code-block:: c 149 .. code-block:: c
172 150
173 do { 151 do {
174 body of do-loop 152 body of do-loop
175 } while (condition); 153 } while (condition);
176 154
177 and 155 and
178 156
179 .. code-block:: c 157 .. code-block:: c
180 158
181 if (x == y) { 159 if (x == y) {
182 .. 160 ..
183 } else if (x > y) { 161 } else if (x > y) {
184 ... 162 ...
185 } else { 163 } else {
186 .... 164 ....
187 } 165 }
188 166
189 Rationale: K&R. 167 Rationale: K&R.
190 168
191 Also, note that this brace-placement also mini 169 Also, note that this brace-placement also minimizes the number of empty
192 (or almost empty) lines, without any loss of r 170 (or almost empty) lines, without any loss of readability. Thus, as the
193 supply of new-lines on your screen is not a re 171 supply of new-lines on your screen is not a renewable resource (think
194 25-line terminal screens here), you have more 172 25-line terminal screens here), you have more empty lines to put
195 comments on. 173 comments on.
196 174
197 Do not unnecessarily use braces where a single 175 Do not unnecessarily use braces where a single statement will do.
198 176
199 .. code-block:: c 177 .. code-block:: c
200 178
201 if (condition) 179 if (condition)
202 action(); 180 action();
203 181
204 and 182 and
205 183
206 .. code-block:: c !! 184 .. code-block:: none
207 185
208 if (condition) 186 if (condition)
209 do_this(); 187 do_this();
210 else 188 else
211 do_that(); 189 do_that();
212 190
213 This does not apply if only one branch of a co 191 This does not apply if only one branch of a conditional statement is a single
214 statement; in the latter case use braces in bo 192 statement; in the latter case use braces in both branches:
215 193
216 .. code-block:: c 194 .. code-block:: c
217 195
218 if (condition) { 196 if (condition) {
219 do_this(); 197 do_this();
220 do_that(); 198 do_that();
221 } else { 199 } else {
222 otherwise(); 200 otherwise();
223 } 201 }
224 202
225 Also, use braces when a loop contains more tha 203 Also, use braces when a loop contains more than a single simple statement:
226 204
227 .. code-block:: c 205 .. code-block:: c
228 206
229 while (condition) { 207 while (condition) {
230 if (test) 208 if (test)
231 do_something(); 209 do_something();
232 } 210 }
233 211
234 3.1) Spaces 212 3.1) Spaces
235 *********** 213 ***********
236 214
237 Linux kernel style for use of spaces depends ( 215 Linux kernel style for use of spaces depends (mostly) on
238 function-versus-keyword usage. Use a space af 216 function-versus-keyword usage. Use a space after (most) keywords. The
239 notable exceptions are sizeof, typeof, alignof 217 notable exceptions are sizeof, typeof, alignof, and __attribute__, which look
240 somewhat like functions (and are usually used 218 somewhat like functions (and are usually used with parentheses in Linux,
241 although they are not required in the language 219 although they are not required in the language, as in: ``sizeof info`` after
242 ``struct fileinfo info;`` is declared). 220 ``struct fileinfo info;`` is declared).
243 221
244 So use a space after these keywords:: 222 So use a space after these keywords::
245 223
246 if, switch, case, for, do, while 224 if, switch, case, for, do, while
247 225
248 but not with sizeof, typeof, alignof, or __att 226 but not with sizeof, typeof, alignof, or __attribute__. E.g.,
249 227
250 .. code-block:: c 228 .. code-block:: c
251 229
252 230
253 s = sizeof(struct file); 231 s = sizeof(struct file);
254 232
255 Do not add spaces around (inside) parenthesize 233 Do not add spaces around (inside) parenthesized expressions. This example is
256 **bad**: 234 **bad**:
257 235
258 .. code-block:: c 236 .. code-block:: c
259 237
260 238
261 s = sizeof( struct file ); 239 s = sizeof( struct file );
262 240
263 When declaring pointer data or a function that 241 When declaring pointer data or a function that returns a pointer type, the
264 preferred use of ``*`` is adjacent to the data 242 preferred use of ``*`` is adjacent to the data name or function name and not
265 adjacent to the type name. Examples: 243 adjacent to the type name. Examples:
266 244
267 .. code-block:: c 245 .. code-block:: c
268 246
269 247
270 char *linux_banner; 248 char *linux_banner;
271 unsigned long long memparse(char *ptr, 249 unsigned long long memparse(char *ptr, char **retptr);
272 char *match_strdup(substring_t *s); 250 char *match_strdup(substring_t *s);
273 251
274 Use one space around (on each side of) most bi 252 Use one space around (on each side of) most binary and ternary operators,
275 such as any of these:: 253 such as any of these::
276 254
277 = + - < > * / % | & ^ <= > 255 = + - < > * / % | & ^ <= >= == != ? :
278 256
279 but no space after unary operators:: 257 but no space after unary operators::
280 258
281 & * + - ~ ! sizeof typeof alig 259 & * + - ~ ! sizeof typeof alignof __attribute__ defined
282 260
283 no space before the postfix increment & decrem 261 no space before the postfix increment & decrement unary operators::
284 262
285 ++ -- 263 ++ --
286 264
287 no space after the prefix increment & decremen 265 no space after the prefix increment & decrement unary operators::
288 266
289 ++ -- 267 ++ --
290 268
291 and no space around the ``.`` and ``->`` struc 269 and no space around the ``.`` and ``->`` structure member operators.
292 270
293 Do not leave trailing whitespace at the ends o 271 Do not leave trailing whitespace at the ends of lines. Some editors with
294 ``smart`` indentation will insert whitespace a 272 ``smart`` indentation will insert whitespace at the beginning of new lines as
295 appropriate, so you can start typing the next 273 appropriate, so you can start typing the next line of code right away.
296 However, some such editors do not remove the w 274 However, some such editors do not remove the whitespace if you end up not
297 putting a line of code there, such as if you l 275 putting a line of code there, such as if you leave a blank line. As a result,
298 you end up with lines containing trailing whit 276 you end up with lines containing trailing whitespace.
299 277
300 Git will warn you about patches that introduce 278 Git will warn you about patches that introduce trailing whitespace, and can
301 optionally strip the trailing whitespace for y 279 optionally strip the trailing whitespace for you; however, if applying a series
302 of patches, this may make later patches in the 280 of patches, this may make later patches in the series fail by changing their
303 context lines. 281 context lines.
304 282
305 283
306 4) Naming 284 4) Naming
307 --------- 285 ---------
308 286
309 C is a Spartan language, and your naming conve !! 287 C is a Spartan language, and so should your naming be. Unlike Modula-2
310 Unlike Modula-2 and Pascal programmers, C prog !! 288 and Pascal programmers, C programmers do not use cute names like
311 names like ThisVariableIsATemporaryCounter. A !! 289 ThisVariableIsATemporaryCounter. A C programmer would call that
312 variable ``tmp``, which is much easier to writ 290 variable ``tmp``, which is much easier to write, and not the least more
313 difficult to understand. 291 difficult to understand.
314 292
315 HOWEVER, while mixed-case names are frowned up 293 HOWEVER, while mixed-case names are frowned upon, descriptive names for
316 global variables are a must. To call a global 294 global variables are a must. To call a global function ``foo`` is a
317 shooting offense. 295 shooting offense.
318 296
319 GLOBAL variables (to be used only if you **rea 297 GLOBAL variables (to be used only if you **really** need them) need to
320 have descriptive names, as do global functions 298 have descriptive names, as do global functions. If you have a function
321 that counts the number of active users, you sh 299 that counts the number of active users, you should call that
322 ``count_active_users()`` or similar, you shoul 300 ``count_active_users()`` or similar, you should **not** call it ``cntusr()``.
323 301
324 Encoding the type of a function into the name 302 Encoding the type of a function into the name (so-called Hungarian
325 notation) is asinine - the compiler knows the !! 303 notation) is brain damaged - the compiler knows the types anyway and can
326 those, and it only confuses the programmer. !! 304 check those, and it only confuses the programmer. No wonder MicroSoft
>> 305 makes buggy programs.
327 306
328 LOCAL variable names should be short, and to t 307 LOCAL variable names should be short, and to the point. If you have
329 some random integer loop counter, it should pr 308 some random integer loop counter, it should probably be called ``i``.
330 Calling it ``loop_counter`` is non-productive, 309 Calling it ``loop_counter`` is non-productive, if there is no chance of it
331 being mis-understood. Similarly, ``tmp`` can 310 being mis-understood. Similarly, ``tmp`` can be just about any type of
332 variable that is used to hold a temporary valu 311 variable that is used to hold a temporary value.
333 312
334 If you are afraid to mix up your local variabl 313 If you are afraid to mix up your local variable names, you have another
335 problem, which is called the function-growth-h 314 problem, which is called the function-growth-hormone-imbalance syndrome.
336 See chapter 6 (Functions). 315 See chapter 6 (Functions).
337 316
338 For symbol names and documentation, avoid intr <<
339 'master / slave' (or 'slave' independent of 'm <<
340 whitelist'. <<
341 <<
342 Recommended replacements for 'master / slave' <<
343 '{primary,main} / {secondary,replica,subor <<
344 '{initiator,requester} / {target,responder <<
345 '{controller,host} / {device,worker,proxy} <<
346 'leader / follower' <<
347 'director / performer' <<
348 <<
349 Recommended replacements for 'blacklist/whitel <<
350 'denylist / allowlist' <<
351 'blocklist / passlist' <<
352 <<
353 Exceptions for introducing new usage is to mai <<
354 or when updating code for an existing (as of 2 <<
355 specification that mandates those terms. For n <<
356 translate specification usage of the terminolo <<
357 standard where possible. <<
358 317
359 5) Typedefs 318 5) Typedefs
360 ----------- 319 -----------
361 320
362 Please don't use things like ``vps_t``. 321 Please don't use things like ``vps_t``.
363 It's a **mistake** to use typedef for structur 322 It's a **mistake** to use typedef for structures and pointers. When you see a
364 323
365 .. code-block:: c 324 .. code-block:: c
366 325
367 326
368 vps_t a; 327 vps_t a;
369 328
370 in the source, what does it mean? 329 in the source, what does it mean?
371 In contrast, if it says 330 In contrast, if it says
372 331
373 .. code-block:: c 332 .. code-block:: c
374 333
375 struct virtual_container *a; 334 struct virtual_container *a;
376 335
377 you can actually tell what ``a`` is. 336 you can actually tell what ``a`` is.
378 337
379 Lots of people think that typedefs ``help read 338 Lots of people think that typedefs ``help readability``. Not so. They are
380 useful only for: 339 useful only for:
381 340
382 (a) totally opaque objects (where the typedef 341 (a) totally opaque objects (where the typedef is actively used to **hide**
383 what the object is). 342 what the object is).
384 343
385 Example: ``pte_t`` etc. opaque objects th 344 Example: ``pte_t`` etc. opaque objects that you can only access using
386 the proper accessor functions. 345 the proper accessor functions.
387 346
388 .. note:: 347 .. note::
389 348
390 Opaqueness and ``accessor functions`` a 349 Opaqueness and ``accessor functions`` are not good in themselves.
391 The reason we have them for things like 350 The reason we have them for things like pte_t etc. is that there
392 really is absolutely **zero** portably 351 really is absolutely **zero** portably accessible information there.
393 352
394 (b) Clear integer types, where the abstractio 353 (b) Clear integer types, where the abstraction **helps** avoid confusion
395 whether it is ``int`` or ``long``. 354 whether it is ``int`` or ``long``.
396 355
397 u8/u16/u32 are perfectly fine typedefs, a 356 u8/u16/u32 are perfectly fine typedefs, although they fit into
398 category (d) better than here. 357 category (d) better than here.
399 358
400 .. note:: 359 .. note::
401 360
402 Again - there needs to be a **reason** 361 Again - there needs to be a **reason** for this. If something is
403 ``unsigned long``, then there's no reas 362 ``unsigned long``, then there's no reason to do
404 363
405 typedef unsigned long myflags_t; 364 typedef unsigned long myflags_t;
406 365
407 but if there is a clear reason for why it 366 but if there is a clear reason for why it under certain circumstances
408 might be an ``unsigned int`` and under ot 367 might be an ``unsigned int`` and under other configurations might be
409 ``unsigned long``, then by all means go a 368 ``unsigned long``, then by all means go ahead and use a typedef.
410 369
411 (c) when you use sparse to literally create a 370 (c) when you use sparse to literally create a **new** type for
412 type-checking. 371 type-checking.
413 372
414 (d) New types which are identical to standard 373 (d) New types which are identical to standard C99 types, in certain
415 exceptional circumstances. 374 exceptional circumstances.
416 375
417 Although it would only take a short amoun 376 Although it would only take a short amount of time for the eyes and
418 brain to become accustomed to the standar 377 brain to become accustomed to the standard types like ``uint32_t``,
419 some people object to their use anyway. 378 some people object to their use anyway.
420 379
421 Therefore, the Linux-specific ``u8/u16/u3 380 Therefore, the Linux-specific ``u8/u16/u32/u64`` types and their
422 signed equivalents which are identical to 381 signed equivalents which are identical to standard types are
423 permitted -- although they are not mandat 382 permitted -- although they are not mandatory in new code of your
424 own. 383 own.
425 384
426 When editing existing code which already 385 When editing existing code which already uses one or the other set
427 of types, you should conform to the exist 386 of types, you should conform to the existing choices in that code.
428 387
429 (e) Types safe for use in userspace. 388 (e) Types safe for use in userspace.
430 389
431 In certain structures which are visible t 390 In certain structures which are visible to userspace, we cannot
432 require C99 types and cannot use the ``u3 391 require C99 types and cannot use the ``u32`` form above. Thus, we
433 use __u32 and similar types in all struct 392 use __u32 and similar types in all structures which are shared
434 with userspace. 393 with userspace.
435 394
436 Maybe there are other cases too, but the rule 395 Maybe there are other cases too, but the rule should basically be to NEVER
437 EVER use a typedef unless you can clearly matc 396 EVER use a typedef unless you can clearly match one of those rules.
438 397
439 In general, a pointer, or a struct that has el 398 In general, a pointer, or a struct that has elements that can reasonably
440 be directly accessed should **never** be a typ 399 be directly accessed should **never** be a typedef.
441 400
442 401
443 6) Functions 402 6) Functions
444 ------------ 403 ------------
445 404
446 Functions should be short and sweet, and do ju 405 Functions should be short and sweet, and do just one thing. They should
447 fit on one or two screenfuls of text (the ISO/ 406 fit on one or two screenfuls of text (the ISO/ANSI screen size is 80x24,
448 as we all know), and do one thing and do that 407 as we all know), and do one thing and do that well.
449 408
450 The maximum length of a function is inversely 409 The maximum length of a function is inversely proportional to the
451 complexity and indentation level of that funct 410 complexity and indentation level of that function. So, if you have a
452 conceptually simple function that is just one 411 conceptually simple function that is just one long (but simple)
453 case-statement, where you have to do lots of s 412 case-statement, where you have to do lots of small things for a lot of
454 different cases, it's OK to have a longer func 413 different cases, it's OK to have a longer function.
455 414
456 However, if you have a complex function, and y 415 However, if you have a complex function, and you suspect that a
457 less-than-gifted first-year high-school studen 416 less-than-gifted first-year high-school student might not even
458 understand what the function is all about, you 417 understand what the function is all about, you should adhere to the
459 maximum limits all the more closely. Use help 418 maximum limits all the more closely. Use helper functions with
460 descriptive names (you can ask the compiler to 419 descriptive names (you can ask the compiler to in-line them if you think
461 it's performance-critical, and it will probabl 420 it's performance-critical, and it will probably do a better job of it
462 than you would have done). 421 than you would have done).
463 422
464 Another measure of the function is the number 423 Another measure of the function is the number of local variables. They
465 shouldn't exceed 5-10, or you're doing somethi 424 shouldn't exceed 5-10, or you're doing something wrong. Re-think the
466 function, and split it into smaller pieces. A 425 function, and split it into smaller pieces. A human brain can
467 generally easily keep track of about 7 differe 426 generally easily keep track of about 7 different things, anything more
468 and it gets confused. You know you're brillia 427 and it gets confused. You know you're brilliant, but maybe you'd like
469 to understand what you did 2 weeks from now. 428 to understand what you did 2 weeks from now.
470 429
471 In source files, separate functions with one b 430 In source files, separate functions with one blank line. If the function is
472 exported, the **EXPORT** macro for it should f 431 exported, the **EXPORT** macro for it should follow immediately after the
473 closing function brace line. E.g.: 432 closing function brace line. E.g.:
474 433
475 .. code-block:: c 434 .. code-block:: c
476 435
477 int system_is_up(void) 436 int system_is_up(void)
478 { 437 {
479 return system_state == SYSTEM_ 438 return system_state == SYSTEM_RUNNING;
480 } 439 }
481 EXPORT_SYMBOL(system_is_up); 440 EXPORT_SYMBOL(system_is_up);
482 441
483 6.1) Function prototypes <<
484 ************************ <<
485 <<
486 In function prototypes, include parameter name 442 In function prototypes, include parameter names with their data types.
487 Although this is not required by the C languag 443 Although this is not required by the C language, it is preferred in Linux
488 because it is a simple way to add valuable inf 444 because it is a simple way to add valuable information for the reader.
489 445
490 Do not use the ``extern`` keyword with functio !! 446 Do not use the ``extern`` keyword with function prototypes as this makes
491 lines longer and isn't strictly necessary. 447 lines longer and isn't strictly necessary.
492 448
493 When writing function prototypes, please keep <<
494 <https://lore.kernel.org/mm-commits/CAHk-=wiOCL <<
495 For example, using this function declaration e <<
496 <<
497 __init void * __must_check action(enum magic <<
498 char *fmt, <<
499 <<
500 The preferred order of elements for a function <<
501 <<
502 - storage class (below, ``static __always_inli <<
503 is technically an attribute but is treated l <<
504 - storage class attributes (here, ``__init`` - <<
505 things like ``__cold``) <<
506 - return type (here, ``void *``) <<
507 - return type attributes (here, ``__must_check <<
508 - function name (here, ``action``) <<
509 - function parameters (here, ``(enum magic val <<
510 noting that parameter names should always be <<
511 - function parameter attributes (here, ``__pri <<
512 - function behavior attributes (here, ``__mall <<
513 <<
514 Note that for a function **definition** (i.e. <<
515 the compiler does not allow function parameter <<
516 function parameters. In these cases, they shou <<
517 class attributes (e.g. note the changed positi <<
518 below, compared to the **declaration** example <<
519 <<
520 static __always_inline __init __printf(4, 5) <<
521 size_t size, u8 count, char *f <<
522 { <<
523 ... <<
524 } <<
525 449
526 7) Centralized exiting of functions 450 7) Centralized exiting of functions
527 ----------------------------------- 451 -----------------------------------
528 452
529 Albeit deprecated by some people, the equivale 453 Albeit deprecated by some people, the equivalent of the goto statement is
530 used frequently by compilers in form of the un 454 used frequently by compilers in form of the unconditional jump instruction.
531 455
532 The goto statement comes in handy when a funct 456 The goto statement comes in handy when a function exits from multiple
533 locations and some common work such as cleanup 457 locations and some common work such as cleanup has to be done. If there is no
534 cleanup needed then just return directly. 458 cleanup needed then just return directly.
535 459
536 Choose label names which say what the goto doe 460 Choose label names which say what the goto does or why the goto exists. An
537 example of a good name could be ``out_free_buf 461 example of a good name could be ``out_free_buffer:`` if the goto frees ``buffer``.
538 Avoid using GW-BASIC names like ``err1:`` and 462 Avoid using GW-BASIC names like ``err1:`` and ``err2:``, as you would have to
539 renumber them if you ever add or remove exit p 463 renumber them if you ever add or remove exit paths, and they make correctness
540 difficult to verify anyway. 464 difficult to verify anyway.
541 465
542 The rationale for using gotos is: 466 The rationale for using gotos is:
543 467
544 - unconditional statements are easier to under 468 - unconditional statements are easier to understand and follow
545 - nesting is reduced 469 - nesting is reduced
546 - errors by not updating individual exit point 470 - errors by not updating individual exit points when making
547 modifications are prevented 471 modifications are prevented
548 - saves the compiler work to optimize redundan 472 - saves the compiler work to optimize redundant code away ;)
549 473
550 .. code-block:: c 474 .. code-block:: c
551 475
552 int fun(int a) 476 int fun(int a)
553 { 477 {
554 int result = 0; 478 int result = 0;
555 char *buffer; 479 char *buffer;
556 480
557 buffer = kmalloc(SIZE, GFP_KER 481 buffer = kmalloc(SIZE, GFP_KERNEL);
558 if (!buffer) 482 if (!buffer)
559 return -ENOMEM; 483 return -ENOMEM;
560 484
561 if (condition1) { 485 if (condition1) {
562 while (loop1) { 486 while (loop1) {
563 ... 487 ...
564 } 488 }
565 result = 1; 489 result = 1;
566 goto out_free_buffer; 490 goto out_free_buffer;
567 } 491 }
568 ... 492 ...
569 out_free_buffer: 493 out_free_buffer:
570 kfree(buffer); 494 kfree(buffer);
571 return result; 495 return result;
572 } 496 }
573 497
574 A common type of bug to be aware of is ``one e 498 A common type of bug to be aware of is ``one err bugs`` which look like this:
575 499
576 .. code-block:: c 500 .. code-block:: c
577 501
578 err: 502 err:
579 kfree(foo->bar); 503 kfree(foo->bar);
580 kfree(foo); 504 kfree(foo);
581 return ret; 505 return ret;
582 506
583 The bug in this code is that on some exit path 507 The bug in this code is that on some exit paths ``foo`` is NULL. Normally the
584 fix for this is to split it up into two error 508 fix for this is to split it up into two error labels ``err_free_bar:`` and
585 ``err_free_foo:``: 509 ``err_free_foo:``:
586 510
587 .. code-block:: c 511 .. code-block:: c
588 512
589 err_free_bar: !! 513 err_free_bar:
590 kfree(foo->bar); 514 kfree(foo->bar);
591 err_free_foo: !! 515 err_free_foo:
592 kfree(foo); 516 kfree(foo);
593 return ret; 517 return ret;
594 518
595 Ideally you should simulate errors to test all 519 Ideally you should simulate errors to test all exit paths.
596 520
597 521
598 8) Commenting 522 8) Commenting
599 ------------- 523 -------------
600 524
601 Comments are good, but there is also a danger 525 Comments are good, but there is also a danger of over-commenting. NEVER
602 try to explain HOW your code works in a commen 526 try to explain HOW your code works in a comment: it's much better to
603 write the code so that the **working** is obvi 527 write the code so that the **working** is obvious, and it's a waste of
604 time to explain badly written code. 528 time to explain badly written code.
605 529
606 Generally, you want your comments to tell WHAT 530 Generally, you want your comments to tell WHAT your code does, not HOW.
607 Also, try to avoid putting comments inside a f 531 Also, try to avoid putting comments inside a function body: if the
608 function is so complex that you need to separa 532 function is so complex that you need to separately comment parts of it,
609 you should probably go back to chapter 6 for a 533 you should probably go back to chapter 6 for a while. You can make
610 small comments to note or warn about something 534 small comments to note or warn about something particularly clever (or
611 ugly), but try to avoid excess. Instead, put 535 ugly), but try to avoid excess. Instead, put the comments at the head
612 of the function, telling people what it does, 536 of the function, telling people what it does, and possibly WHY it does
613 it. 537 it.
614 538
615 When commenting the kernel API functions, plea 539 When commenting the kernel API functions, please use the kernel-doc format.
616 See the files at :ref:`Documentation/doc-guide 540 See the files at :ref:`Documentation/doc-guide/ <doc_guide>` and
617 ``scripts/kernel-doc`` for details. 541 ``scripts/kernel-doc`` for details.
618 542
619 The preferred style for long (multi-line) comm 543 The preferred style for long (multi-line) comments is:
620 544
621 .. code-block:: c 545 .. code-block:: c
622 546
623 /* 547 /*
624 * This is the preferred style for mul 548 * This is the preferred style for multi-line
625 * comments in the Linux kernel source 549 * comments in the Linux kernel source code.
626 * Please use it consistently. 550 * Please use it consistently.
627 * 551 *
628 * Description: A column of asterisks 552 * Description: A column of asterisks on the left side,
629 * with beginning and ending almost-bl 553 * with beginning and ending almost-blank lines.
630 */ 554 */
631 555
>> 556 For files in net/ and drivers/net/ the preferred style for long (multi-line)
>> 557 comments is a little different.
>> 558
>> 559 .. code-block:: c
>> 560
>> 561 /* The preferred comment style for files in net/ and drivers/net
>> 562 * looks like this.
>> 563 *
>> 564 * It is nearly the same as the generally preferred comment style,
>> 565 * but there is no initial almost-blank line.
>> 566 */
>> 567
632 It's also important to comment data, whether t 568 It's also important to comment data, whether they are basic types or derived
633 types. To this end, use just one data declara 569 types. To this end, use just one data declaration per line (no commas for
634 multiple data declarations). This leaves you 570 multiple data declarations). This leaves you room for a small comment on each
635 item, explaining its use. 571 item, explaining its use.
636 572
637 573
638 9) You've made a mess of it 574 9) You've made a mess of it
639 --------------------------- 575 ---------------------------
640 576
641 That's OK, we all do. You've probably been to 577 That's OK, we all do. You've probably been told by your long-time Unix
642 user helper that ``GNU emacs`` automatically f 578 user helper that ``GNU emacs`` automatically formats the C sources for
643 you, and you've noticed that yes, it does do t 579 you, and you've noticed that yes, it does do that, but the defaults it
644 uses are less than desirable (in fact, they ar 580 uses are less than desirable (in fact, they are worse than random
645 typing - an infinite number of monkeys typing 581 typing - an infinite number of monkeys typing into GNU emacs would never
646 make a good program). 582 make a good program).
647 583
648 So, you can either get rid of GNU emacs, or ch 584 So, you can either get rid of GNU emacs, or change it to use saner
649 values. To do the latter, you can stick the f 585 values. To do the latter, you can stick the following in your .emacs file:
650 586
651 .. code-block:: elisp !! 587 .. code-block:: none
652 588
653 (defun c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only (ignored) 589 (defun c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only (ignored)
654 "Line up argument lists by tabs, not space 590 "Line up argument lists by tabs, not spaces"
655 (let* ((anchor (c-langelem-pos c-syntactic 591 (let* ((anchor (c-langelem-pos c-syntactic-element))
656 (column (c-langelem-2nd-pos c-synta 592 (column (c-langelem-2nd-pos c-syntactic-element))
657 (offset (- (1+ column) anchor)) 593 (offset (- (1+ column) anchor))
658 (steps (floor offset c-basic-offset 594 (steps (floor offset c-basic-offset)))
659 (* (max steps 1) 595 (* (max steps 1)
660 c-basic-offset))) 596 c-basic-offset)))
661 597
662 (dir-locals-set-class-variables 598 (dir-locals-set-class-variables
663 'linux-kernel 599 'linux-kernel
664 '((c-mode . ( 600 '((c-mode . (
665 (c-basic-offset . 8) 601 (c-basic-offset . 8)
666 (c-label-minimum-indentation . 0) 602 (c-label-minimum-indentation . 0)
667 (c-offsets-alist . ( 603 (c-offsets-alist . (
668 (arglist-close . c-l 604 (arglist-close . c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only)
669 (arglist-cont-nonempty . 605 (arglist-cont-nonempty .
670 (c-lineup-gcc-asm-reg c- !! 606 (c-lineup-gcc-asm-reg c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only))
671 (arglist-intro . +) 607 (arglist-intro . +)
672 (brace-list-intro . +) 608 (brace-list-intro . +)
673 (c . c-l 609 (c . c-lineup-C-comments)
674 (case-label . 0) 610 (case-label . 0)
675 (comment-intro . c-l 611 (comment-intro . c-lineup-comment)
676 (cpp-define-intro . +) 612 (cpp-define-intro . +)
677 (cpp-macro . -10 613 (cpp-macro . -1000)
678 (cpp-macro-cont . +) 614 (cpp-macro-cont . +)
679 (defun-block-intro . +) 615 (defun-block-intro . +)
680 (else-clause . 0) 616 (else-clause . 0)
681 (func-decl-cont . +) 617 (func-decl-cont . +)
682 (inclass . +) 618 (inclass . +)
683 (inher-cont . c-l 619 (inher-cont . c-lineup-multi-inher)
684 (knr-argdecl-intro . 0) 620 (knr-argdecl-intro . 0)
685 (label . -10 621 (label . -1000)
686 (statement . 0) 622 (statement . 0)
687 (statement-block-intro . +) 623 (statement-block-intro . +)
688 (statement-case-intro . +) 624 (statement-case-intro . +)
689 (statement-cont . +) 625 (statement-cont . +)
690 (substatement . +) 626 (substatement . +)
691 )) 627 ))
692 (indent-tabs-mode . t) 628 (indent-tabs-mode . t)
693 (show-trailing-whitespace . t) 629 (show-trailing-whitespace . t)
694 )))) 630 ))))
695 631
696 (dir-locals-set-directory-class 632 (dir-locals-set-directory-class
697 (expand-file-name "~/src/linux-trees") 633 (expand-file-name "~/src/linux-trees")
698 'linux-kernel) 634 'linux-kernel)
699 635
700 This will make emacs go better with the kernel 636 This will make emacs go better with the kernel coding style for C
701 files below ``~/src/linux-trees``. 637 files below ``~/src/linux-trees``.
702 638
703 But even if you fail in getting emacs to do sa 639 But even if you fail in getting emacs to do sane formatting, not
704 everything is lost: use ``indent``. 640 everything is lost: use ``indent``.
705 641
706 Now, again, GNU indent has the same brain-dead 642 Now, again, GNU indent has the same brain-dead settings that GNU emacs
707 has, which is why you need to give it a few co 643 has, which is why you need to give it a few command line options.
708 However, that's not too bad, because even the 644 However, that's not too bad, because even the makers of GNU indent
709 recognize the authority of K&R (the GNU people 645 recognize the authority of K&R (the GNU people aren't evil, they are
710 just severely misguided in this matter), so yo 646 just severely misguided in this matter), so you just give indent the
711 options ``-kr -i8`` (stands for ``K&R, 8 chara 647 options ``-kr -i8`` (stands for ``K&R, 8 character indents``), or use
712 ``scripts/Lindent``, which indents in the late 648 ``scripts/Lindent``, which indents in the latest style.
713 649
714 ``indent`` has a lot of options, and especiall 650 ``indent`` has a lot of options, and especially when it comes to comment
715 re-formatting you may want to take a look at t 651 re-formatting you may want to take a look at the man page. But
716 remember: ``indent`` is not a fix for bad prog 652 remember: ``indent`` is not a fix for bad programming.
717 653
718 Note that you can also use the ``clang-format` 654 Note that you can also use the ``clang-format`` tool to help you with
719 these rules, to quickly re-format parts of you 655 these rules, to quickly re-format parts of your code automatically,
720 and to review full files in order to spot codi 656 and to review full files in order to spot coding style mistakes,
721 typos and possible improvements. It is also ha 657 typos and possible improvements. It is also handy for sorting ``#includes``,
722 for aligning variables/macros, for reflowing t 658 for aligning variables/macros, for reflowing text and other similar tasks.
723 See the file :ref:`Documentation/dev-tools/cla !! 659 See the file :ref:`Documentation/process/clang-format.rst <clangformat>`
724 for more details. 660 for more details.
725 661
726 Some basic editor settings, such as indentatio <<
727 set automatically if you are using an editor t <<
728 EditorConfig. See the official EditorConfig we <<
729 https://editorconfig.org/ <<
730 662
731 10) Kconfig configuration files 663 10) Kconfig configuration files
732 ------------------------------- 664 -------------------------------
733 665
734 For all of the Kconfig* configuration files th 666 For all of the Kconfig* configuration files throughout the source tree,
735 the indentation is somewhat different. Lines 667 the indentation is somewhat different. Lines under a ``config`` definition
736 are indented with one tab, while help text is 668 are indented with one tab, while help text is indented an additional two
737 spaces. Example:: 669 spaces. Example::
738 670
739 config AUDIT 671 config AUDIT
740 bool "Auditing support" 672 bool "Auditing support"
741 depends on NET 673 depends on NET
742 help 674 help
743 Enable auditing infrastructure that 675 Enable auditing infrastructure that can be used with another
744 kernel subsystem, such as SELinux (w 676 kernel subsystem, such as SELinux (which requires this for
745 logging of avc messages output). Do 677 logging of avc messages output). Does not do system-call
746 auditing without CONFIG_AUDITSYSCALL 678 auditing without CONFIG_AUDITSYSCALL.
747 679
748 Seriously dangerous features (such as write su 680 Seriously dangerous features (such as write support for certain
749 filesystems) should advertise this prominently 681 filesystems) should advertise this prominently in their prompt string::
750 682
751 config ADFS_FS_RW 683 config ADFS_FS_RW
752 bool "ADFS write support (DANGEROUS)" 684 bool "ADFS write support (DANGEROUS)"
753 depends on ADFS_FS 685 depends on ADFS_FS
754 ... 686 ...
755 687
756 For full documentation on the configuration fi 688 For full documentation on the configuration files, see the file
757 Documentation/kbuild/kconfig-language.rst. 689 Documentation/kbuild/kconfig-language.rst.
758 690
759 691
760 11) Data structures 692 11) Data structures
761 ------------------- 693 -------------------
762 694
763 Data structures that have visibility outside t 695 Data structures that have visibility outside the single-threaded
764 environment they are created and destroyed in 696 environment they are created and destroyed in should always have
765 reference counts. In the kernel, garbage coll 697 reference counts. In the kernel, garbage collection doesn't exist (and
766 outside the kernel garbage collection is slow 698 outside the kernel garbage collection is slow and inefficient), which
767 means that you absolutely **have** to referenc 699 means that you absolutely **have** to reference count all your uses.
768 700
769 Reference counting means that you can avoid lo 701 Reference counting means that you can avoid locking, and allows multiple
770 users to have access to the data structure in 702 users to have access to the data structure in parallel - and not having
771 to worry about the structure suddenly going aw 703 to worry about the structure suddenly going away from under them just
772 because they slept or did something else for a 704 because they slept or did something else for a while.
773 705
774 Note that locking is **not** a replacement for 706 Note that locking is **not** a replacement for reference counting.
775 Locking is used to keep data structures cohere 707 Locking is used to keep data structures coherent, while reference
776 counting is a memory management technique. Us 708 counting is a memory management technique. Usually both are needed, and
777 they are not to be confused with each other. 709 they are not to be confused with each other.
778 710
779 Many data structures can indeed have two level 711 Many data structures can indeed have two levels of reference counting,
780 when there are users of different ``classes``. 712 when there are users of different ``classes``. The subclass count counts
781 the number of subclass users, and decrements t 713 the number of subclass users, and decrements the global count just once
782 when the subclass count goes to zero. 714 when the subclass count goes to zero.
783 715
784 Examples of this kind of ``multi-level-referen 716 Examples of this kind of ``multi-level-reference-counting`` can be found in
785 memory management (``struct mm_struct``: mm_us 717 memory management (``struct mm_struct``: mm_users and mm_count), and in
786 filesystem code (``struct super_block``: s_cou 718 filesystem code (``struct super_block``: s_count and s_active).
787 719
788 Remember: if another thread can find your data 720 Remember: if another thread can find your data structure, and you don't
789 have a reference count on it, you almost certa 721 have a reference count on it, you almost certainly have a bug.
790 722
791 723
792 12) Macros, Enums and RTL 724 12) Macros, Enums and RTL
793 ------------------------- 725 -------------------------
794 726
795 Names of macros defining constants and labels 727 Names of macros defining constants and labels in enums are capitalized.
796 728
797 .. code-block:: c 729 .. code-block:: c
798 730
799 #define CONSTANT 0x12345 731 #define CONSTANT 0x12345
800 732
801 Enums are preferred when defining several rela 733 Enums are preferred when defining several related constants.
802 734
803 CAPITALIZED macro names are appreciated but ma 735 CAPITALIZED macro names are appreciated but macros resembling functions
804 may be named in lower case. 736 may be named in lower case.
805 737
806 Generally, inline functions are preferable to 738 Generally, inline functions are preferable to macros resembling functions.
807 739
808 Macros with multiple statements should be encl 740 Macros with multiple statements should be enclosed in a do - while block:
809 741
810 .. code-block:: c 742 .. code-block:: c
811 743
812 #define macrofun(a, b, c) 744 #define macrofun(a, b, c) \
813 do { 745 do { \
814 if (a == 5) 746 if (a == 5) \
815 do_this(b, c); 747 do_this(b, c); \
816 } while (0) 748 } while (0)
817 749
818 Function-like macros with unused parameters sh <<
819 inline functions to avoid the issue of unused <<
820 <<
821 .. code-block:: c <<
822 <<
823 static inline void fun(struct foo *foo <<
824 { <<
825 } <<
826 <<
827 Due to historical practices, many files still <<
828 approach to evaluate parameters. However, this <<
829 Inline functions address the issue of "express <<
830 evaluated more than once", circumvent unused-v <<
831 are generally better documented than macros fo <<
832 <<
833 .. code-block:: c <<
834 <<
835 /* <<
836 * Avoid doing this whenever possible <<
837 * inline functions <<
838 */ <<
839 #define macrofun(foo) do { (void) (foo <<
840 <<
841 Things to avoid when using macros: 750 Things to avoid when using macros:
842 751
843 1) macros that affect control flow: 752 1) macros that affect control flow:
844 753
845 .. code-block:: c 754 .. code-block:: c
846 755
847 #define FOO(x) 756 #define FOO(x) \
848 do { 757 do { \
849 if (blah(x) < 0) 758 if (blah(x) < 0) \
850 return -EBUGGE 759 return -EBUGGERED; \
851 } while (0) 760 } while (0)
852 761
853 is a **very** bad idea. It looks like a funct 762 is a **very** bad idea. It looks like a function call but exits the ``calling``
854 function; don't break the internal parsers of 763 function; don't break the internal parsers of those who will read the code.
855 764
856 2) macros that depend on having a local variab 765 2) macros that depend on having a local variable with a magic name:
857 766
858 .. code-block:: c 767 .. code-block:: c
859 768
860 #define FOO(val) bar(index, val) 769 #define FOO(val) bar(index, val)
861 770
862 might look like a good thing, but it's confusi 771 might look like a good thing, but it's confusing as hell when one reads the
863 code and it's prone to breakage from seemingly 772 code and it's prone to breakage from seemingly innocent changes.
864 773
865 3) macros with arguments that are used as l-va 774 3) macros with arguments that are used as l-values: FOO(x) = y; will
866 bite you if somebody e.g. turns FOO into an in 775 bite you if somebody e.g. turns FOO into an inline function.
867 776
868 4) forgetting about precedence: macros definin 777 4) forgetting about precedence: macros defining constants using expressions
869 must enclose the expression in parentheses. Be 778 must enclose the expression in parentheses. Beware of similar issues with
870 macros using parameters. 779 macros using parameters.
871 780
872 .. code-block:: c 781 .. code-block:: c
873 782
874 #define CONSTANT 0x4000 783 #define CONSTANT 0x4000
875 #define CONSTEXP (CONSTANT | 3) 784 #define CONSTEXP (CONSTANT | 3)
876 785
877 5) namespace collisions when defining local va 786 5) namespace collisions when defining local variables in macros resembling
878 functions: 787 functions:
879 788
880 .. code-block:: c 789 .. code-block:: c
881 790
882 #define FOO(x) 791 #define FOO(x) \
883 ({ 792 ({ \
884 typeof(x) ret; 793 typeof(x) ret; \
885 ret = calc_ret(x); 794 ret = calc_ret(x); \
886 (ret); 795 (ret); \
887 }) 796 })
888 797
889 ret is a common name for a local variable - __ 798 ret is a common name for a local variable - __foo_ret is less likely
890 to collide with an existing variable. 799 to collide with an existing variable.
891 800
892 The cpp manual deals with macros exhaustively. 801 The cpp manual deals with macros exhaustively. The gcc internals manual also
893 covers RTL which is used frequently with assem 802 covers RTL which is used frequently with assembly language in the kernel.
894 803
895 804
896 13) Printing kernel messages 805 13) Printing kernel messages
897 ---------------------------- 806 ----------------------------
898 807
899 Kernel developers like to be seen as literate. 808 Kernel developers like to be seen as literate. Do mind the spelling
900 of kernel messages to make a good impression. !! 809 of kernel messages to make a good impression. Do not use crippled
901 contractions like ``dont``; use ``do not`` or !! 810 words like ``dont``; use ``do not`` or ``don't`` instead. Make the messages
902 messages concise, clear, and unambiguous. !! 811 concise, clear, and unambiguous.
903 812
904 Kernel messages do not have to be terminated w 813 Kernel messages do not have to be terminated with a period.
905 814
906 Printing numbers in parentheses (%d) adds no v 815 Printing numbers in parentheses (%d) adds no value and should be avoided.
907 816
908 There are a number of driver model diagnostic !! 817 There are a number of driver model diagnostic macros in <linux/device.h>
909 which you should use to make sure messages are 818 which you should use to make sure messages are matched to the right device
910 and driver, and are tagged with the right leve 819 and driver, and are tagged with the right level: dev_err(), dev_warn(),
911 dev_info(), and so forth. For messages that a 820 dev_info(), and so forth. For messages that aren't associated with a
912 particular device, <linux/printk.h> defines pr 821 particular device, <linux/printk.h> defines pr_notice(), pr_info(),
913 pr_warn(), pr_err(), etc. When drivers are wor !! 822 pr_warn(), pr_err(), etc.
914 so prefer to use dev_dbg/pr_debug unless somet <<
915 823
916 Coming up with good debugging messages can be 824 Coming up with good debugging messages can be quite a challenge; and once
917 you have them, they can be a huge help for rem 825 you have them, they can be a huge help for remote troubleshooting. However
918 debug message printing is handled differently 826 debug message printing is handled differently than printing other non-debug
919 messages. While the other pr_XXX() functions 827 messages. While the other pr_XXX() functions print unconditionally,
920 pr_debug() does not; it is compiled out by def 828 pr_debug() does not; it is compiled out by default, unless either DEBUG is
921 defined or CONFIG_DYNAMIC_DEBUG is set. That 829 defined or CONFIG_DYNAMIC_DEBUG is set. That is true for dev_dbg() also,
922 and a related convention uses VERBOSE_DEBUG to 830 and a related convention uses VERBOSE_DEBUG to add dev_vdbg() messages to
923 the ones already enabled by DEBUG. 831 the ones already enabled by DEBUG.
924 832
925 Many subsystems have Kconfig debug options to 833 Many subsystems have Kconfig debug options to turn on -DDEBUG in the
926 corresponding Makefile; in other cases specifi 834 corresponding Makefile; in other cases specific files #define DEBUG. And
927 when a debug message should be unconditionally 835 when a debug message should be unconditionally printed, such as if it is
928 already inside a debug-related #ifdef section, 836 already inside a debug-related #ifdef section, printk(KERN_DEBUG ...) can be
929 used. 837 used.
930 838
931 839
932 14) Allocating memory 840 14) Allocating memory
933 --------------------- 841 ---------------------
934 842
935 The kernel provides the following general purp 843 The kernel provides the following general purpose memory allocators:
936 kmalloc(), kzalloc(), kmalloc_array(), kcalloc 844 kmalloc(), kzalloc(), kmalloc_array(), kcalloc(), vmalloc(), and
937 vzalloc(). Please refer to the API documentat 845 vzalloc(). Please refer to the API documentation for further information
938 about them. :ref:`Documentation/core-api/memo 846 about them. :ref:`Documentation/core-api/memory-allocation.rst
939 <memory_allocation>` 847 <memory_allocation>`
940 848
941 The preferred form for passing a size of a str 849 The preferred form for passing a size of a struct is the following:
942 850
943 .. code-block:: c 851 .. code-block:: c
944 852
945 p = kmalloc(sizeof(*p), ...); 853 p = kmalloc(sizeof(*p), ...);
946 854
947 The alternative form where struct name is spel 855 The alternative form where struct name is spelled out hurts readability and
948 introduces an opportunity for a bug when the p 856 introduces an opportunity for a bug when the pointer variable type is changed
949 but the corresponding sizeof that is passed to 857 but the corresponding sizeof that is passed to a memory allocator is not.
950 858
951 Casting the return value which is a void point 859 Casting the return value which is a void pointer is redundant. The conversion
952 from void pointer to any other pointer type is 860 from void pointer to any other pointer type is guaranteed by the C programming
953 language. 861 language.
954 862
955 The preferred form for allocating an array is 863 The preferred form for allocating an array is the following:
956 864
957 .. code-block:: c 865 .. code-block:: c
958 866
959 p = kmalloc_array(n, sizeof(...), ...) 867 p = kmalloc_array(n, sizeof(...), ...);
960 868
961 The preferred form for allocating a zeroed arr 869 The preferred form for allocating a zeroed array is the following:
962 870
963 .. code-block:: c 871 .. code-block:: c
964 872
965 p = kcalloc(n, sizeof(...), ...); 873 p = kcalloc(n, sizeof(...), ...);
966 874
967 Both forms check for overflow on the allocatio 875 Both forms check for overflow on the allocation size n * sizeof(...),
968 and return NULL if that occurred. 876 and return NULL if that occurred.
969 877
970 These generic allocation functions all emit a 878 These generic allocation functions all emit a stack dump on failure when used
971 without __GFP_NOWARN so there is no use in emi 879 without __GFP_NOWARN so there is no use in emitting an additional failure
972 message when NULL is returned. 880 message when NULL is returned.
973 881
974 15) The inline disease 882 15) The inline disease
975 ---------------------- 883 ----------------------
976 884
977 There appears to be a common misperception tha 885 There appears to be a common misperception that gcc has a magic "make me
978 faster" speedup option called ``inline``. Whil 886 faster" speedup option called ``inline``. While the use of inlines can be
979 appropriate (for example as a means of replaci 887 appropriate (for example as a means of replacing macros, see Chapter 12), it
980 very often is not. Abundant use of the inline 888 very often is not. Abundant use of the inline keyword leads to a much bigger
981 kernel, which in turn slows the system as a wh 889 kernel, which in turn slows the system as a whole down, due to a bigger
982 icache footprint for the CPU and simply becaus 890 icache footprint for the CPU and simply because there is less memory
983 available for the pagecache. Just think about 891 available for the pagecache. Just think about it; a pagecache miss causes a
984 disk seek, which easily takes 5 milliseconds. 892 disk seek, which easily takes 5 milliseconds. There are a LOT of cpu cycles
985 that can go into these 5 milliseconds. 893 that can go into these 5 milliseconds.
986 894
987 A reasonable rule of thumb is to not put inlin 895 A reasonable rule of thumb is to not put inline at functions that have more
988 than 3 lines of code in them. An exception to 896 than 3 lines of code in them. An exception to this rule are the cases where
989 a parameter is known to be a compiletime const 897 a parameter is known to be a compiletime constant, and as a result of this
990 constantness you *know* the compiler will be a 898 constantness you *know* the compiler will be able to optimize most of your
991 function away at compile time. For a good exam 899 function away at compile time. For a good example of this later case, see
992 the kmalloc() inline function. 900 the kmalloc() inline function.
993 901
994 Often people argue that adding inline to funct 902 Often people argue that adding inline to functions that are static and used
995 only once is always a win since there is no sp 903 only once is always a win since there is no space tradeoff. While this is
996 technically correct, gcc is capable of inlinin 904 technically correct, gcc is capable of inlining these automatically without
997 help, and the maintenance issue of removing th 905 help, and the maintenance issue of removing the inline when a second user
998 appears outweighs the potential value of the h 906 appears outweighs the potential value of the hint that tells gcc to do
999 something it would have done anyway. 907 something it would have done anyway.
1000 908
1001 909
1002 16) Function return values and names 910 16) Function return values and names
1003 ------------------------------------ 911 ------------------------------------
1004 912
1005 Functions can return values of many different 913 Functions can return values of many different kinds, and one of the
1006 most common is a value indicating whether the 914 most common is a value indicating whether the function succeeded or
1007 failed. Such a value can be represented as a 915 failed. Such a value can be represented as an error-code integer
1008 (-Exxx = failure, 0 = success) or a ``succeed 916 (-Exxx = failure, 0 = success) or a ``succeeded`` boolean (0 = failure,
1009 non-zero = success). 917 non-zero = success).
1010 918
1011 Mixing up these two sorts of representations 919 Mixing up these two sorts of representations is a fertile source of
1012 difficult-to-find bugs. If the C language in 920 difficult-to-find bugs. If the C language included a strong distinction
1013 between integers and booleans then the compil 921 between integers and booleans then the compiler would find these mistakes
1014 for us... but it doesn't. To help prevent su 922 for us... but it doesn't. To help prevent such bugs, always follow this
1015 convention:: 923 convention::
1016 924
1017 If the name of a function is an actio 925 If the name of a function is an action or an imperative command,
1018 the function should return an error-c 926 the function should return an error-code integer. If the name
1019 is a predicate, the function should r 927 is a predicate, the function should return a "succeeded" boolean.
1020 928
1021 For example, ``add work`` is a command, and t 929 For example, ``add work`` is a command, and the add_work() function returns 0
1022 for success or -EBUSY for failure. In the sa 930 for success or -EBUSY for failure. In the same way, ``PCI device present`` is
1023 a predicate, and the pci_dev_present() functi 931 a predicate, and the pci_dev_present() function returns 1 if it succeeds in
1024 finding a matching device or 0 if it doesn't. 932 finding a matching device or 0 if it doesn't.
1025 933
1026 All EXPORTed functions must respect this conv 934 All EXPORTed functions must respect this convention, and so should all
1027 public functions. Private (static) functions 935 public functions. Private (static) functions need not, but it is
1028 recommended that they do. 936 recommended that they do.
1029 937
1030 Functions whose return value is the actual re 938 Functions whose return value is the actual result of a computation, rather
1031 than an indication of whether the computation 939 than an indication of whether the computation succeeded, are not subject to
1032 this rule. Generally they indicate failure b 940 this rule. Generally they indicate failure by returning some out-of-range
1033 result. Typical examples would be functions 941 result. Typical examples would be functions that return pointers; they use
1034 NULL or the ERR_PTR mechanism to report failu 942 NULL or the ERR_PTR mechanism to report failure.
1035 943
1036 944
1037 17) Using bool 945 17) Using bool
1038 -------------- 946 --------------
1039 947
1040 The Linux kernel bool type is an alias for th 948 The Linux kernel bool type is an alias for the C99 _Bool type. bool values can
1041 only evaluate to 0 or 1, and implicit or expl 949 only evaluate to 0 or 1, and implicit or explicit conversion to bool
1042 automatically converts the value to true or f 950 automatically converts the value to true or false. When using bool types the
1043 !! construction is not needed, which eliminat 951 !! construction is not needed, which eliminates a class of bugs.
1044 952
1045 When working with bool values the true and fa 953 When working with bool values the true and false definitions should be used
1046 instead of 1 and 0. 954 instead of 1 and 0.
1047 955
1048 bool function return types and stack variable 956 bool function return types and stack variables are always fine to use whenever
1049 appropriate. Use of bool is encouraged to imp 957 appropriate. Use of bool is encouraged to improve readability and is often a
1050 better option than 'int' for storing boolean 958 better option than 'int' for storing boolean values.
1051 959
1052 Do not use bool if cache line layout or size 960 Do not use bool if cache line layout or size of the value matters, as its size
1053 and alignment varies based on the compiled ar 961 and alignment varies based on the compiled architecture. Structures that are
1054 optimized for alignment and size should not u 962 optimized for alignment and size should not use bool.
1055 963
1056 If a structure has many true/false values, co 964 If a structure has many true/false values, consider consolidating them into a
1057 bitfield with 1 bit members, or using an appr 965 bitfield with 1 bit members, or using an appropriate fixed width type, such as
1058 u8. 966 u8.
1059 967
1060 Similarly for function arguments, many true/f 968 Similarly for function arguments, many true/false values can be consolidated
1061 into a single bitwise 'flags' argument and 'f 969 into a single bitwise 'flags' argument and 'flags' can often be a more
1062 readable alternative if the call-sites have n 970 readable alternative if the call-sites have naked true/false constants.
1063 971
1064 Otherwise limited use of bool in structures a 972 Otherwise limited use of bool in structures and arguments can improve
1065 readability. 973 readability.
1066 974
1067 18) Don't re-invent the kernel macros 975 18) Don't re-invent the kernel macros
1068 ------------------------------------- 976 -------------------------------------
1069 977
1070 The header file include/linux/kernel.h contai 978 The header file include/linux/kernel.h contains a number of macros that
1071 you should use, rather than explicitly coding 979 you should use, rather than explicitly coding some variant of them yourself.
1072 For example, if you need to calculate the len 980 For example, if you need to calculate the length of an array, take advantage
1073 of the macro 981 of the macro
1074 982
1075 .. code-block:: c 983 .. code-block:: c
1076 984
1077 #define ARRAY_SIZE(x) (sizeof(x) / si 985 #define ARRAY_SIZE(x) (sizeof(x) / sizeof((x)[0]))
1078 986
1079 Similarly, if you need to calculate the size 987 Similarly, if you need to calculate the size of some structure member, use
1080 988
1081 .. code-block:: c 989 .. code-block:: c
1082 990
1083 #define sizeof_field(t, f) (sizeof((( 991 #define sizeof_field(t, f) (sizeof(((t*)0)->f))
1084 992
1085 There are also min() and max() macros that do 993 There are also min() and max() macros that do strict type checking if you
1086 need them. Feel free to peruse that header f 994 need them. Feel free to peruse that header file to see what else is already
1087 defined that you shouldn't reproduce in your 995 defined that you shouldn't reproduce in your code.
1088 996
1089 997
1090 19) Editor modelines and other cruft 998 19) Editor modelines and other cruft
1091 ------------------------------------ 999 ------------------------------------
1092 1000
1093 Some editors can interpret configuration info 1001 Some editors can interpret configuration information embedded in source files,
1094 indicated with special markers. For example, 1002 indicated with special markers. For example, emacs interprets lines marked
1095 like this: 1003 like this:
1096 1004
1097 .. code-block:: c 1005 .. code-block:: c
1098 1006
1099 -*- mode: c -*- 1007 -*- mode: c -*-
1100 1008
1101 Or like this: 1009 Or like this:
1102 1010
1103 .. code-block:: c 1011 .. code-block:: c
1104 1012
1105 /* 1013 /*
1106 Local Variables: 1014 Local Variables:
1107 compile-command: "gcc -DMAGIC_DEBUG_F 1015 compile-command: "gcc -DMAGIC_DEBUG_FLAG foo.c"
1108 End: 1016 End:
1109 */ 1017 */
1110 1018
1111 Vim interprets markers that look like this: 1019 Vim interprets markers that look like this:
1112 1020
1113 .. code-block:: c 1021 .. code-block:: c
1114 1022
1115 /* vim:set sw=8 noet */ 1023 /* vim:set sw=8 noet */
1116 1024
1117 Do not include any of these in source files. 1025 Do not include any of these in source files. People have their own personal
1118 editor configurations, and your source files 1026 editor configurations, and your source files should not override them. This
1119 includes markers for indentation and mode con 1027 includes markers for indentation and mode configuration. People may use their
1120 own custom mode, or may have some other magic 1028 own custom mode, or may have some other magic method for making indentation
1121 work correctly. 1029 work correctly.
1122 1030
1123 1031
1124 20) Inline assembly 1032 20) Inline assembly
1125 ------------------- 1033 -------------------
1126 1034
1127 In architecture-specific code, you may need t 1035 In architecture-specific code, you may need to use inline assembly to interface
1128 with CPU or platform functionality. Don't he 1036 with CPU or platform functionality. Don't hesitate to do so when necessary.
1129 However, don't use inline assembly gratuitous 1037 However, don't use inline assembly gratuitously when C can do the job. You can
1130 and should poke hardware from C when possible 1038 and should poke hardware from C when possible.
1131 1039
1132 Consider writing simple helper functions that 1040 Consider writing simple helper functions that wrap common bits of inline
1133 assembly, rather than repeatedly writing them 1041 assembly, rather than repeatedly writing them with slight variations. Remember
1134 that inline assembly can use C parameters. 1042 that inline assembly can use C parameters.
1135 1043
1136 Large, non-trivial assembly functions should 1044 Large, non-trivial assembly functions should go in .S files, with corresponding
1137 C prototypes defined in C header files. The 1045 C prototypes defined in C header files. The C prototypes for assembly
1138 functions should use ``asmlinkage``. 1046 functions should use ``asmlinkage``.
1139 1047
1140 You may need to mark your asm statement as vo 1048 You may need to mark your asm statement as volatile, to prevent GCC from
1141 removing it if GCC doesn't notice any side ef 1049 removing it if GCC doesn't notice any side effects. You don't always need to
1142 do so, though, and doing so unnecessarily can 1050 do so, though, and doing so unnecessarily can limit optimization.
1143 1051
1144 When writing a single inline assembly stateme 1052 When writing a single inline assembly statement containing multiple
1145 instructions, put each instruction on a separ 1053 instructions, put each instruction on a separate line in a separate quoted
1146 string, and end each string except the last w 1054 string, and end each string except the last with ``\n\t`` to properly indent
1147 the next instruction in the assembly output: 1055 the next instruction in the assembly output:
1148 1056
1149 .. code-block:: c 1057 .. code-block:: c
1150 1058
1151 asm ("magic %reg1, #42\n\t" 1059 asm ("magic %reg1, #42\n\t"
1152 "more_magic %reg2, %reg3" 1060 "more_magic %reg2, %reg3"
1153 : /* outputs */ : /* inputs */ : 1061 : /* outputs */ : /* inputs */ : /* clobbers */);
1154 1062
1155 1063
1156 21) Conditional Compilation 1064 21) Conditional Compilation
1157 --------------------------- 1065 ---------------------------
1158 1066
1159 Wherever possible, don't use preprocessor con 1067 Wherever possible, don't use preprocessor conditionals (#if, #ifdef) in .c
1160 files; doing so makes code harder to read and 1068 files; doing so makes code harder to read and logic harder to follow. Instead,
1161 use such conditionals in a header file defini 1069 use such conditionals in a header file defining functions for use in those .c
1162 files, providing no-op stub versions in the # 1070 files, providing no-op stub versions in the #else case, and then call those
1163 functions unconditionally from .c files. The 1071 functions unconditionally from .c files. The compiler will avoid generating
1164 any code for the stub calls, producing identi 1072 any code for the stub calls, producing identical results, but the logic will
1165 remain easy to follow. 1073 remain easy to follow.
1166 1074
1167 Prefer to compile out entire functions, rathe 1075 Prefer to compile out entire functions, rather than portions of functions or
1168 portions of expressions. Rather than putting 1076 portions of expressions. Rather than putting an ifdef in an expression, factor
1169 out part or all of the expression into a sepa 1077 out part or all of the expression into a separate helper function and apply the
1170 conditional to that function. 1078 conditional to that function.
1171 1079
1172 If you have a function or variable which may 1080 If you have a function or variable which may potentially go unused in a
1173 particular configuration, and the compiler wo 1081 particular configuration, and the compiler would warn about its definition
1174 going unused, mark the definition as __maybe_ 1082 going unused, mark the definition as __maybe_unused rather than wrapping it in
1175 a preprocessor conditional. (However, if a f 1083 a preprocessor conditional. (However, if a function or variable *always* goes
1176 unused, delete it.) 1084 unused, delete it.)
1177 1085
1178 Within code, where possible, use the IS_ENABL 1086 Within code, where possible, use the IS_ENABLED macro to convert a Kconfig
1179 symbol into a C boolean expression, and use i 1087 symbol into a C boolean expression, and use it in a normal C conditional:
1180 1088
1181 .. code-block:: c 1089 .. code-block:: c
1182 1090
1183 if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_SOMETHING)) { 1091 if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_SOMETHING)) {
1184 ... 1092 ...
1185 } 1093 }
1186 1094
1187 The compiler will constant-fold the condition 1095 The compiler will constant-fold the conditional away, and include or exclude
1188 the block of code just as with an #ifdef, so 1096 the block of code just as with an #ifdef, so this will not add any runtime
1189 overhead. However, this approach still allow 1097 overhead. However, this approach still allows the C compiler to see the code
1190 inside the block, and check it for correctnes 1098 inside the block, and check it for correctness (syntax, types, symbol
1191 references, etc). Thus, you still have to us 1099 references, etc). Thus, you still have to use an #ifdef if the code inside the
1192 block references symbols that will not exist 1100 block references symbols that will not exist if the condition is not met.
1193 1101
1194 At the end of any non-trivial #if or #ifdef b 1102 At the end of any non-trivial #if or #ifdef block (more than a few lines),
1195 place a comment after the #endif on the same 1103 place a comment after the #endif on the same line, noting the conditional
1196 expression used. For instance: 1104 expression used. For instance:
1197 1105
1198 .. code-block:: c 1106 .. code-block:: c
1199 1107
1200 #ifdef CONFIG_SOMETHING 1108 #ifdef CONFIG_SOMETHING
1201 ... 1109 ...
1202 #endif /* CONFIG_SOMETHING */ 1110 #endif /* CONFIG_SOMETHING */
1203 1111
1204 1112
1205 22) Do not crash the kernel <<
1206 --------------------------- <<
1207 <<
1208 In general, the decision to crash the kernel <<
1209 than to the kernel developer. <<
1210 <<
1211 Avoid panic() <<
1212 ************* <<
1213 <<
1214 panic() should be used with care and primaril <<
1215 panic() is, for example, acceptable when runn <<
1216 not being able to continue. <<
1217 <<
1218 Use WARN() rather than BUG() <<
1219 **************************** <<
1220 <<
1221 Do not add new code that uses any of the BUG( <<
1222 BUG_ON(), or VM_BUG_ON(). Instead, use a WARN <<
1223 WARN_ON_ONCE(), and possibly with recovery co <<
1224 required if there is no reasonable way to at <<
1225 <<
1226 "I'm too lazy to do error handling" is not an <<
1227 internal corruptions with no way of continuin <<
1228 good justification. <<
1229 <<
1230 Use WARN_ON_ONCE() rather than WARN() or WARN <<
1231 ********************************************* <<
1232 <<
1233 WARN_ON_ONCE() is generally preferred over WA <<
1234 is common for a given warning condition, if i <<
1235 multiple times. This can fill up and wrap the <<
1236 the system enough that the excessive logging <<
1237 problem. <<
1238 <<
1239 Do not WARN lightly <<
1240 ******************* <<
1241 <<
1242 WARN*() is intended for unexpected, this-shou <<
1243 WARN*() macros are not to be used for anythin <<
1244 during normal operation. These are not pre- o <<
1245 example. Again: WARN*() must not be used for <<
1246 to trigger easily, for example, by user space <<
1247 possible alternative, if you need to notify t <<
1248 <<
1249 Do not worry about panic_on_warn users <<
1250 ************************************** <<
1251 <<
1252 A few more words about panic_on_warn: Remembe <<
1253 available kernel option, and that many users <<
1254 there is a "Do not WARN lightly" writeup, abo <<
1255 panic_on_warn users is not a valid reason to <<
1256 WARN*(). That is because, whoever enables pan <<
1257 asked the kernel to crash if a WARN*() fires, <<
1258 prepared to deal with the consequences of a s <<
1259 likely to crash. <<
1260 <<
1261 Use BUILD_BUG_ON() for compile-time assertion <<
1262 ********************************************* <<
1263 <<
1264 The use of BUILD_BUG_ON() is acceptable and e <<
1265 compile-time assertion that has no effect at <<
1266 <<
1267 Appendix I) References 1113 Appendix I) References
1268 ---------------------- 1114 ----------------------
1269 1115
1270 The C Programming Language, Second Edition 1116 The C Programming Language, Second Edition
1271 by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie. 1117 by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie.
1272 Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988. 1118 Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988.
1273 ISBN 0-13-110362-8 (paperback), 0-13-110370-9 1119 ISBN 0-13-110362-8 (paperback), 0-13-110370-9 (hardback).
1274 1120
1275 The Practice of Programming 1121 The Practice of Programming
1276 by Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike. 1122 by Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike.
1277 Addison-Wesley, Inc., 1999. 1123 Addison-Wesley, Inc., 1999.
1278 ISBN 0-201-61586-X. 1124 ISBN 0-201-61586-X.
1279 1125
1280 GNU manuals - where in compliance with K&R an 1126 GNU manuals - where in compliance with K&R and this text - for cpp, gcc,
1281 gcc internals and indent, all available from !! 1127 gcc internals and indent, all available from http://www.gnu.org/manual/
1282 1128
1283 WG14 is the international standardization wor 1129 WG14 is the international standardization working group for the programming
1284 language C, URL: http://www.open-std.org/JTC1 1130 language C, URL: http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/
1285 1131
1286 Kernel CodingStyle, by greg@kroah.com at OLS !! 1132 Kernel :ref:`process/coding-style.rst <codingstyle>`, by greg@kroah.com at OLS 2002:
1287 http://www.kroah.com/linux/talks/ols_2002_ker 1133 http://www.kroah.com/linux/talks/ols_2002_kernel_codingstyle_talk/html/
Linux® is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the United States and other countries.
TOMOYO® is a registered trademark of NTT DATA CORPORATION.