1 .. _codingstyle: 1 .. _codingstyle:
2 2
3 Linux kernel coding style 3 Linux kernel coding style
4 ========================= 4 =========================
5 5
6 This is a short document describing the prefer 6 This is a short document describing the preferred coding style for the
7 linux kernel. Coding style is very personal, 7 linux kernel. Coding style is very personal, and I won't **force** my
8 views on anybody, but this is what goes for an 8 views on anybody, but this is what goes for anything that I have to be
9 able to maintain, and I'd prefer it for most o 9 able to maintain, and I'd prefer it for most other things too. Please
10 at least consider the points made here. 10 at least consider the points made here.
11 11
12 First off, I'd suggest printing out a copy of 12 First off, I'd suggest printing out a copy of the GNU coding standards,
13 and NOT read it. Burn them, it's a great symb 13 and NOT read it. Burn them, it's a great symbolic gesture.
14 14
15 Anyway, here goes: 15 Anyway, here goes:
16 16
17 17
18 1) Indentation 18 1) Indentation
19 -------------- 19 --------------
20 20
21 Tabs are 8 characters, and thus indentations a 21 Tabs are 8 characters, and thus indentations are also 8 characters.
22 There are heretic movements that try to make i 22 There are heretic movements that try to make indentations 4 (or even 2!)
23 characters deep, and that is akin to trying to 23 characters deep, and that is akin to trying to define the value of PI to
24 be 3. 24 be 3.
25 25
26 Rationale: The whole idea behind indentation i 26 Rationale: The whole idea behind indentation is to clearly define where
27 a block of control starts and ends. Especiall 27 a block of control starts and ends. Especially when you've been looking
28 at your screen for 20 straight hours, you'll f 28 at your screen for 20 straight hours, you'll find it a lot easier to see
29 how the indentation works if you have large in 29 how the indentation works if you have large indentations.
30 30
31 Now, some people will claim that having 8-char 31 Now, some people will claim that having 8-character indentations makes
32 the code move too far to the right, and makes 32 the code move too far to the right, and makes it hard to read on a
33 80-character terminal screen. The answer to t 33 80-character terminal screen. The answer to that is that if you need
34 more than 3 levels of indentation, you're scre 34 more than 3 levels of indentation, you're screwed anyway, and should fix
35 your program. 35 your program.
36 36
37 In short, 8-char indents make things easier to 37 In short, 8-char indents make things easier to read, and have the added
38 benefit of warning you when you're nesting you 38 benefit of warning you when you're nesting your functions too deep.
39 Heed that warning. 39 Heed that warning.
40 40
41 The preferred way to ease multiple indentation 41 The preferred way to ease multiple indentation levels in a switch statement is
42 to align the ``switch`` and its subordinate `` 42 to align the ``switch`` and its subordinate ``case`` labels in the same column
43 instead of ``double-indenting`` the ``case`` l 43 instead of ``double-indenting`` the ``case`` labels. E.g.:
44 44
45 .. code-block:: c 45 .. code-block:: c
46 46
47 switch (suffix) { 47 switch (suffix) {
48 case 'G': 48 case 'G':
49 case 'g': 49 case 'g':
50 mem <<= 30; 50 mem <<= 30;
51 break; 51 break;
52 case 'M': 52 case 'M':
53 case 'm': 53 case 'm':
54 mem <<= 20; 54 mem <<= 20;
55 break; 55 break;
56 case 'K': 56 case 'K':
57 case 'k': 57 case 'k':
58 mem <<= 10; 58 mem <<= 10;
59 fallthrough; 59 fallthrough;
60 default: 60 default:
61 break; 61 break;
62 } 62 }
63 63
64 Don't put multiple statements on a single line 64 Don't put multiple statements on a single line unless you have
65 something to hide: 65 something to hide:
66 66
67 .. code-block:: c 67 .. code-block:: c
68 68
69 if (condition) do_this; 69 if (condition) do_this;
70 do_something_everytime; 70 do_something_everytime;
71 71
72 Don't use commas to avoid using braces: <<
73 <<
74 .. code-block:: c <<
75 <<
76 if (condition) <<
77 do_this(), do_that(); <<
78 <<
79 Always uses braces for multiple statements: <<
80 <<
81 .. code-block:: c <<
82 <<
83 if (condition) { <<
84 do_this(); <<
85 do_that(); <<
86 } <<
87 <<
88 Don't put multiple assignments on a single lin 72 Don't put multiple assignments on a single line either. Kernel coding style
89 is super simple. Avoid tricky expressions. 73 is super simple. Avoid tricky expressions.
90 74
91 <<
92 Outside of comments, documentation and except 75 Outside of comments, documentation and except in Kconfig, spaces are never
93 used for indentation, and the above example is 76 used for indentation, and the above example is deliberately broken.
94 77
95 Get a decent editor and don't leave whitespace 78 Get a decent editor and don't leave whitespace at the end of lines.
96 79
97 80
98 2) Breaking long lines and strings 81 2) Breaking long lines and strings
99 ---------------------------------- 82 ----------------------------------
100 83
101 Coding style is all about readability and main 84 Coding style is all about readability and maintainability using commonly
102 available tools. 85 available tools.
103 86
104 The preferred limit on the length of a single 87 The preferred limit on the length of a single line is 80 columns.
105 88
106 Statements longer than 80 columns should be br 89 Statements longer than 80 columns should be broken into sensible chunks,
107 unless exceeding 80 columns significantly incr 90 unless exceeding 80 columns significantly increases readability and does
108 not hide information. 91 not hide information.
109 92
110 Descendants are always substantially shorter t 93 Descendants are always substantially shorter than the parent and
111 are placed substantially to the right. A very 94 are placed substantially to the right. A very commonly used style
112 is to align descendants to a function open par 95 is to align descendants to a function open parenthesis.
113 96
114 These same rules are applied to function heade 97 These same rules are applied to function headers with a long argument list.
115 98
116 However, never break user-visible strings such 99 However, never break user-visible strings such as printk messages because
117 that breaks the ability to grep for them. 100 that breaks the ability to grep for them.
118 101
119 102
120 3) Placing Braces and Spaces 103 3) Placing Braces and Spaces
121 ---------------------------- 104 ----------------------------
122 105
123 The other issue that always comes up in C styl 106 The other issue that always comes up in C styling is the placement of
124 braces. Unlike the indent size, there are few 107 braces. Unlike the indent size, there are few technical reasons to
125 choose one placement strategy over the other, 108 choose one placement strategy over the other, but the preferred way, as
126 shown to us by the prophets Kernighan and Ritc 109 shown to us by the prophets Kernighan and Ritchie, is to put the opening
127 brace last on the line, and put the closing br 110 brace last on the line, and put the closing brace first, thusly:
128 111
129 .. code-block:: c 112 .. code-block:: c
130 113
131 if (x is true) { 114 if (x is true) {
132 we do y 115 we do y
133 } 116 }
134 117
135 This applies to all non-function statement blo 118 This applies to all non-function statement blocks (if, switch, for,
136 while, do). E.g.: 119 while, do). E.g.:
137 120
138 .. code-block:: c 121 .. code-block:: c
139 122
140 switch (action) { 123 switch (action) {
141 case KOBJ_ADD: 124 case KOBJ_ADD:
142 return "add"; 125 return "add";
143 case KOBJ_REMOVE: 126 case KOBJ_REMOVE:
144 return "remove"; 127 return "remove";
145 case KOBJ_CHANGE: 128 case KOBJ_CHANGE:
146 return "change"; 129 return "change";
147 default: 130 default:
148 return NULL; 131 return NULL;
149 } 132 }
150 133
151 However, there is one special case, namely fun 134 However, there is one special case, namely functions: they have the
152 opening brace at the beginning of the next lin 135 opening brace at the beginning of the next line, thus:
153 136
154 .. code-block:: c 137 .. code-block:: c
155 138
156 int function(int x) 139 int function(int x)
157 { 140 {
158 body of function 141 body of function
159 } 142 }
160 143
161 Heretic people all over the world have claimed 144 Heretic people all over the world have claimed that this inconsistency
162 is ... well ... inconsistent, but all right- 145 is ... well ... inconsistent, but all right-thinking people know that
163 (a) K&R are **right** and (b) K&R are right. 146 (a) K&R are **right** and (b) K&R are right. Besides, functions are
164 special anyway (you can't nest them in C). 147 special anyway (you can't nest them in C).
165 148
166 Note that the closing brace is empty on a line 149 Note that the closing brace is empty on a line of its own, **except** in
167 the cases where it is followed by a continuati 150 the cases where it is followed by a continuation of the same statement,
168 ie a ``while`` in a do-statement or an ``else` 151 ie a ``while`` in a do-statement or an ``else`` in an if-statement, like
169 this: 152 this:
170 153
171 .. code-block:: c 154 .. code-block:: c
172 155
173 do { 156 do {
174 body of do-loop 157 body of do-loop
175 } while (condition); 158 } while (condition);
176 159
177 and 160 and
178 161
179 .. code-block:: c 162 .. code-block:: c
180 163
181 if (x == y) { 164 if (x == y) {
182 .. 165 ..
183 } else if (x > y) { 166 } else if (x > y) {
184 ... 167 ...
185 } else { 168 } else {
186 .... 169 ....
187 } 170 }
188 171
189 Rationale: K&R. 172 Rationale: K&R.
190 173
191 Also, note that this brace-placement also mini 174 Also, note that this brace-placement also minimizes the number of empty
192 (or almost empty) lines, without any loss of r 175 (or almost empty) lines, without any loss of readability. Thus, as the
193 supply of new-lines on your screen is not a re 176 supply of new-lines on your screen is not a renewable resource (think
194 25-line terminal screens here), you have more 177 25-line terminal screens here), you have more empty lines to put
195 comments on. 178 comments on.
196 179
197 Do not unnecessarily use braces where a single 180 Do not unnecessarily use braces where a single statement will do.
198 181
199 .. code-block:: c 182 .. code-block:: c
200 183
201 if (condition) 184 if (condition)
202 action(); 185 action();
203 186
204 and 187 and
205 188
206 .. code-block:: c !! 189 .. code-block:: none
207 190
208 if (condition) 191 if (condition)
209 do_this(); 192 do_this();
210 else 193 else
211 do_that(); 194 do_that();
212 195
213 This does not apply if only one branch of a co 196 This does not apply if only one branch of a conditional statement is a single
214 statement; in the latter case use braces in bo 197 statement; in the latter case use braces in both branches:
215 198
216 .. code-block:: c 199 .. code-block:: c
217 200
218 if (condition) { 201 if (condition) {
219 do_this(); 202 do_this();
220 do_that(); 203 do_that();
221 } else { 204 } else {
222 otherwise(); 205 otherwise();
223 } 206 }
224 207
225 Also, use braces when a loop contains more tha 208 Also, use braces when a loop contains more than a single simple statement:
226 209
227 .. code-block:: c 210 .. code-block:: c
228 211
229 while (condition) { 212 while (condition) {
230 if (test) 213 if (test)
231 do_something(); 214 do_something();
232 } 215 }
233 216
234 3.1) Spaces 217 3.1) Spaces
235 *********** 218 ***********
236 219
237 Linux kernel style for use of spaces depends ( 220 Linux kernel style for use of spaces depends (mostly) on
238 function-versus-keyword usage. Use a space af 221 function-versus-keyword usage. Use a space after (most) keywords. The
239 notable exceptions are sizeof, typeof, alignof 222 notable exceptions are sizeof, typeof, alignof, and __attribute__, which look
240 somewhat like functions (and are usually used 223 somewhat like functions (and are usually used with parentheses in Linux,
241 although they are not required in the language 224 although they are not required in the language, as in: ``sizeof info`` after
242 ``struct fileinfo info;`` is declared). 225 ``struct fileinfo info;`` is declared).
243 226
244 So use a space after these keywords:: 227 So use a space after these keywords::
245 228
246 if, switch, case, for, do, while 229 if, switch, case, for, do, while
247 230
248 but not with sizeof, typeof, alignof, or __att 231 but not with sizeof, typeof, alignof, or __attribute__. E.g.,
249 232
250 .. code-block:: c 233 .. code-block:: c
251 234
252 235
253 s = sizeof(struct file); 236 s = sizeof(struct file);
254 237
255 Do not add spaces around (inside) parenthesize 238 Do not add spaces around (inside) parenthesized expressions. This example is
256 **bad**: 239 **bad**:
257 240
258 .. code-block:: c 241 .. code-block:: c
259 242
260 243
261 s = sizeof( struct file ); 244 s = sizeof( struct file );
262 245
263 When declaring pointer data or a function that 246 When declaring pointer data or a function that returns a pointer type, the
264 preferred use of ``*`` is adjacent to the data 247 preferred use of ``*`` is adjacent to the data name or function name and not
265 adjacent to the type name. Examples: 248 adjacent to the type name. Examples:
266 249
267 .. code-block:: c 250 .. code-block:: c
268 251
269 252
270 char *linux_banner; 253 char *linux_banner;
271 unsigned long long memparse(char *ptr, 254 unsigned long long memparse(char *ptr, char **retptr);
272 char *match_strdup(substring_t *s); 255 char *match_strdup(substring_t *s);
273 256
274 Use one space around (on each side of) most bi 257 Use one space around (on each side of) most binary and ternary operators,
275 such as any of these:: 258 such as any of these::
276 259
277 = + - < > * / % | & ^ <= > 260 = + - < > * / % | & ^ <= >= == != ? :
278 261
279 but no space after unary operators:: 262 but no space after unary operators::
280 263
281 & * + - ~ ! sizeof typeof alig 264 & * + - ~ ! sizeof typeof alignof __attribute__ defined
282 265
283 no space before the postfix increment & decrem 266 no space before the postfix increment & decrement unary operators::
284 267
285 ++ -- 268 ++ --
286 269
287 no space after the prefix increment & decremen 270 no space after the prefix increment & decrement unary operators::
288 271
289 ++ -- 272 ++ --
290 273
291 and no space around the ``.`` and ``->`` struc 274 and no space around the ``.`` and ``->`` structure member operators.
292 275
293 Do not leave trailing whitespace at the ends o 276 Do not leave trailing whitespace at the ends of lines. Some editors with
294 ``smart`` indentation will insert whitespace a 277 ``smart`` indentation will insert whitespace at the beginning of new lines as
295 appropriate, so you can start typing the next 278 appropriate, so you can start typing the next line of code right away.
296 However, some such editors do not remove the w 279 However, some such editors do not remove the whitespace if you end up not
297 putting a line of code there, such as if you l 280 putting a line of code there, such as if you leave a blank line. As a result,
298 you end up with lines containing trailing whit 281 you end up with lines containing trailing whitespace.
299 282
300 Git will warn you about patches that introduce 283 Git will warn you about patches that introduce trailing whitespace, and can
301 optionally strip the trailing whitespace for y 284 optionally strip the trailing whitespace for you; however, if applying a series
302 of patches, this may make later patches in the 285 of patches, this may make later patches in the series fail by changing their
303 context lines. 286 context lines.
304 287
305 288
306 4) Naming 289 4) Naming
307 --------- 290 ---------
308 291
309 C is a Spartan language, and your naming conve 292 C is a Spartan language, and your naming conventions should follow suit.
310 Unlike Modula-2 and Pascal programmers, C prog 293 Unlike Modula-2 and Pascal programmers, C programmers do not use cute
311 names like ThisVariableIsATemporaryCounter. A 294 names like ThisVariableIsATemporaryCounter. A C programmer would call that
312 variable ``tmp``, which is much easier to writ 295 variable ``tmp``, which is much easier to write, and not the least more
313 difficult to understand. 296 difficult to understand.
314 297
315 HOWEVER, while mixed-case names are frowned up 298 HOWEVER, while mixed-case names are frowned upon, descriptive names for
316 global variables are a must. To call a global 299 global variables are a must. To call a global function ``foo`` is a
317 shooting offense. 300 shooting offense.
318 301
319 GLOBAL variables (to be used only if you **rea 302 GLOBAL variables (to be used only if you **really** need them) need to
320 have descriptive names, as do global functions 303 have descriptive names, as do global functions. If you have a function
321 that counts the number of active users, you sh 304 that counts the number of active users, you should call that
322 ``count_active_users()`` or similar, you shoul 305 ``count_active_users()`` or similar, you should **not** call it ``cntusr()``.
323 306
324 Encoding the type of a function into the name 307 Encoding the type of a function into the name (so-called Hungarian
325 notation) is asinine - the compiler knows the 308 notation) is asinine - the compiler knows the types anyway and can check
326 those, and it only confuses the programmer. !! 309 those, and it only confuses the programmer. No wonder Microsoft makes buggy
>> 310 programs.
327 311
328 LOCAL variable names should be short, and to t 312 LOCAL variable names should be short, and to the point. If you have
329 some random integer loop counter, it should pr 313 some random integer loop counter, it should probably be called ``i``.
330 Calling it ``loop_counter`` is non-productive, 314 Calling it ``loop_counter`` is non-productive, if there is no chance of it
331 being mis-understood. Similarly, ``tmp`` can 315 being mis-understood. Similarly, ``tmp`` can be just about any type of
332 variable that is used to hold a temporary valu 316 variable that is used to hold a temporary value.
333 317
334 If you are afraid to mix up your local variabl 318 If you are afraid to mix up your local variable names, you have another
335 problem, which is called the function-growth-h 319 problem, which is called the function-growth-hormone-imbalance syndrome.
336 See chapter 6 (Functions). 320 See chapter 6 (Functions).
337 321
338 For symbol names and documentation, avoid intr 322 For symbol names and documentation, avoid introducing new usage of
339 'master / slave' (or 'slave' independent of 'm 323 'master / slave' (or 'slave' independent of 'master') and 'blacklist /
340 whitelist'. 324 whitelist'.
341 325
342 Recommended replacements for 'master / slave' 326 Recommended replacements for 'master / slave' are:
343 '{primary,main} / {secondary,replica,subor 327 '{primary,main} / {secondary,replica,subordinate}'
344 '{initiator,requester} / {target,responder 328 '{initiator,requester} / {target,responder}'
345 '{controller,host} / {device,worker,proxy} 329 '{controller,host} / {device,worker,proxy}'
346 'leader / follower' 330 'leader / follower'
347 'director / performer' 331 'director / performer'
348 332
349 Recommended replacements for 'blacklist/whitel 333 Recommended replacements for 'blacklist/whitelist' are:
350 'denylist / allowlist' 334 'denylist / allowlist'
351 'blocklist / passlist' 335 'blocklist / passlist'
352 336
353 Exceptions for introducing new usage is to mai 337 Exceptions for introducing new usage is to maintain a userspace ABI/API,
354 or when updating code for an existing (as of 2 338 or when updating code for an existing (as of 2020) hardware or protocol
355 specification that mandates those terms. For n 339 specification that mandates those terms. For new specifications
356 translate specification usage of the terminolo 340 translate specification usage of the terminology to the kernel coding
357 standard where possible. 341 standard where possible.
358 342
359 5) Typedefs 343 5) Typedefs
360 ----------- 344 -----------
361 345
362 Please don't use things like ``vps_t``. 346 Please don't use things like ``vps_t``.
363 It's a **mistake** to use typedef for structur 347 It's a **mistake** to use typedef for structures and pointers. When you see a
364 348
365 .. code-block:: c 349 .. code-block:: c
366 350
367 351
368 vps_t a; 352 vps_t a;
369 353
370 in the source, what does it mean? 354 in the source, what does it mean?
371 In contrast, if it says 355 In contrast, if it says
372 356
373 .. code-block:: c 357 .. code-block:: c
374 358
375 struct virtual_container *a; 359 struct virtual_container *a;
376 360
377 you can actually tell what ``a`` is. 361 you can actually tell what ``a`` is.
378 362
379 Lots of people think that typedefs ``help read 363 Lots of people think that typedefs ``help readability``. Not so. They are
380 useful only for: 364 useful only for:
381 365
382 (a) totally opaque objects (where the typedef 366 (a) totally opaque objects (where the typedef is actively used to **hide**
383 what the object is). 367 what the object is).
384 368
385 Example: ``pte_t`` etc. opaque objects th 369 Example: ``pte_t`` etc. opaque objects that you can only access using
386 the proper accessor functions. 370 the proper accessor functions.
387 371
388 .. note:: 372 .. note::
389 373
390 Opaqueness and ``accessor functions`` a 374 Opaqueness and ``accessor functions`` are not good in themselves.
391 The reason we have them for things like 375 The reason we have them for things like pte_t etc. is that there
392 really is absolutely **zero** portably 376 really is absolutely **zero** portably accessible information there.
393 377
394 (b) Clear integer types, where the abstractio 378 (b) Clear integer types, where the abstraction **helps** avoid confusion
395 whether it is ``int`` or ``long``. 379 whether it is ``int`` or ``long``.
396 380
397 u8/u16/u32 are perfectly fine typedefs, a 381 u8/u16/u32 are perfectly fine typedefs, although they fit into
398 category (d) better than here. 382 category (d) better than here.
399 383
400 .. note:: 384 .. note::
401 385
402 Again - there needs to be a **reason** 386 Again - there needs to be a **reason** for this. If something is
403 ``unsigned long``, then there's no reas 387 ``unsigned long``, then there's no reason to do
404 388
405 typedef unsigned long myflags_t; 389 typedef unsigned long myflags_t;
406 390
407 but if there is a clear reason for why it 391 but if there is a clear reason for why it under certain circumstances
408 might be an ``unsigned int`` and under ot 392 might be an ``unsigned int`` and under other configurations might be
409 ``unsigned long``, then by all means go a 393 ``unsigned long``, then by all means go ahead and use a typedef.
410 394
411 (c) when you use sparse to literally create a 395 (c) when you use sparse to literally create a **new** type for
412 type-checking. 396 type-checking.
413 397
414 (d) New types which are identical to standard 398 (d) New types which are identical to standard C99 types, in certain
415 exceptional circumstances. 399 exceptional circumstances.
416 400
417 Although it would only take a short amoun 401 Although it would only take a short amount of time for the eyes and
418 brain to become accustomed to the standar 402 brain to become accustomed to the standard types like ``uint32_t``,
419 some people object to their use anyway. 403 some people object to their use anyway.
420 404
421 Therefore, the Linux-specific ``u8/u16/u3 405 Therefore, the Linux-specific ``u8/u16/u32/u64`` types and their
422 signed equivalents which are identical to 406 signed equivalents which are identical to standard types are
423 permitted -- although they are not mandat 407 permitted -- although they are not mandatory in new code of your
424 own. 408 own.
425 409
426 When editing existing code which already 410 When editing existing code which already uses one or the other set
427 of types, you should conform to the exist 411 of types, you should conform to the existing choices in that code.
428 412
429 (e) Types safe for use in userspace. 413 (e) Types safe for use in userspace.
430 414
431 In certain structures which are visible t 415 In certain structures which are visible to userspace, we cannot
432 require C99 types and cannot use the ``u3 416 require C99 types and cannot use the ``u32`` form above. Thus, we
433 use __u32 and similar types in all struct 417 use __u32 and similar types in all structures which are shared
434 with userspace. 418 with userspace.
435 419
436 Maybe there are other cases too, but the rule 420 Maybe there are other cases too, but the rule should basically be to NEVER
437 EVER use a typedef unless you can clearly matc 421 EVER use a typedef unless you can clearly match one of those rules.
438 422
439 In general, a pointer, or a struct that has el 423 In general, a pointer, or a struct that has elements that can reasonably
440 be directly accessed should **never** be a typ 424 be directly accessed should **never** be a typedef.
441 425
442 426
443 6) Functions 427 6) Functions
444 ------------ 428 ------------
445 429
446 Functions should be short and sweet, and do ju 430 Functions should be short and sweet, and do just one thing. They should
447 fit on one or two screenfuls of text (the ISO/ 431 fit on one or two screenfuls of text (the ISO/ANSI screen size is 80x24,
448 as we all know), and do one thing and do that 432 as we all know), and do one thing and do that well.
449 433
450 The maximum length of a function is inversely 434 The maximum length of a function is inversely proportional to the
451 complexity and indentation level of that funct 435 complexity and indentation level of that function. So, if you have a
452 conceptually simple function that is just one 436 conceptually simple function that is just one long (but simple)
453 case-statement, where you have to do lots of s 437 case-statement, where you have to do lots of small things for a lot of
454 different cases, it's OK to have a longer func 438 different cases, it's OK to have a longer function.
455 439
456 However, if you have a complex function, and y 440 However, if you have a complex function, and you suspect that a
457 less-than-gifted first-year high-school studen 441 less-than-gifted first-year high-school student might not even
458 understand what the function is all about, you 442 understand what the function is all about, you should adhere to the
459 maximum limits all the more closely. Use help 443 maximum limits all the more closely. Use helper functions with
460 descriptive names (you can ask the compiler to 444 descriptive names (you can ask the compiler to in-line them if you think
461 it's performance-critical, and it will probabl 445 it's performance-critical, and it will probably do a better job of it
462 than you would have done). 446 than you would have done).
463 447
464 Another measure of the function is the number 448 Another measure of the function is the number of local variables. They
465 shouldn't exceed 5-10, or you're doing somethi 449 shouldn't exceed 5-10, or you're doing something wrong. Re-think the
466 function, and split it into smaller pieces. A 450 function, and split it into smaller pieces. A human brain can
467 generally easily keep track of about 7 differe 451 generally easily keep track of about 7 different things, anything more
468 and it gets confused. You know you're brillia 452 and it gets confused. You know you're brilliant, but maybe you'd like
469 to understand what you did 2 weeks from now. 453 to understand what you did 2 weeks from now.
470 454
471 In source files, separate functions with one b 455 In source files, separate functions with one blank line. If the function is
472 exported, the **EXPORT** macro for it should f 456 exported, the **EXPORT** macro for it should follow immediately after the
473 closing function brace line. E.g.: 457 closing function brace line. E.g.:
474 458
475 .. code-block:: c 459 .. code-block:: c
476 460
477 int system_is_up(void) 461 int system_is_up(void)
478 { 462 {
479 return system_state == SYSTEM_ 463 return system_state == SYSTEM_RUNNING;
480 } 464 }
481 EXPORT_SYMBOL(system_is_up); 465 EXPORT_SYMBOL(system_is_up);
482 466
483 6.1) Function prototypes <<
484 ************************ <<
485 <<
486 In function prototypes, include parameter name 467 In function prototypes, include parameter names with their data types.
487 Although this is not required by the C languag 468 Although this is not required by the C language, it is preferred in Linux
488 because it is a simple way to add valuable inf 469 because it is a simple way to add valuable information for the reader.
489 470
490 Do not use the ``extern`` keyword with functio !! 471 Do not use the ``extern`` keyword with function prototypes as this makes
491 lines longer and isn't strictly necessary. 472 lines longer and isn't strictly necessary.
492 473
493 When writing function prototypes, please keep <<
494 <https://lore.kernel.org/mm-commits/CAHk-=wiOCL <<
495 For example, using this function declaration e <<
496 <<
497 __init void * __must_check action(enum magic <<
498 char *fmt, <<
499 <<
500 The preferred order of elements for a function <<
501 <<
502 - storage class (below, ``static __always_inli <<
503 is technically an attribute but is treated l <<
504 - storage class attributes (here, ``__init`` - <<
505 things like ``__cold``) <<
506 - return type (here, ``void *``) <<
507 - return type attributes (here, ``__must_check <<
508 - function name (here, ``action``) <<
509 - function parameters (here, ``(enum magic val <<
510 noting that parameter names should always be <<
511 - function parameter attributes (here, ``__pri <<
512 - function behavior attributes (here, ``__mall <<
513 <<
514 Note that for a function **definition** (i.e. <<
515 the compiler does not allow function parameter <<
516 function parameters. In these cases, they shou <<
517 class attributes (e.g. note the changed positi <<
518 below, compared to the **declaration** example <<
519 <<
520 static __always_inline __init __printf(4, 5) <<
521 size_t size, u8 count, char *f <<
522 { <<
523 ... <<
524 } <<
525 474
526 7) Centralized exiting of functions 475 7) Centralized exiting of functions
527 ----------------------------------- 476 -----------------------------------
528 477
529 Albeit deprecated by some people, the equivale 478 Albeit deprecated by some people, the equivalent of the goto statement is
530 used frequently by compilers in form of the un 479 used frequently by compilers in form of the unconditional jump instruction.
531 480
532 The goto statement comes in handy when a funct 481 The goto statement comes in handy when a function exits from multiple
533 locations and some common work such as cleanup 482 locations and some common work such as cleanup has to be done. If there is no
534 cleanup needed then just return directly. 483 cleanup needed then just return directly.
535 484
536 Choose label names which say what the goto doe 485 Choose label names which say what the goto does or why the goto exists. An
537 example of a good name could be ``out_free_buf 486 example of a good name could be ``out_free_buffer:`` if the goto frees ``buffer``.
538 Avoid using GW-BASIC names like ``err1:`` and 487 Avoid using GW-BASIC names like ``err1:`` and ``err2:``, as you would have to
539 renumber them if you ever add or remove exit p 488 renumber them if you ever add or remove exit paths, and they make correctness
540 difficult to verify anyway. 489 difficult to verify anyway.
541 490
542 The rationale for using gotos is: 491 The rationale for using gotos is:
543 492
544 - unconditional statements are easier to under 493 - unconditional statements are easier to understand and follow
545 - nesting is reduced 494 - nesting is reduced
546 - errors by not updating individual exit point 495 - errors by not updating individual exit points when making
547 modifications are prevented 496 modifications are prevented
548 - saves the compiler work to optimize redundan 497 - saves the compiler work to optimize redundant code away ;)
549 498
550 .. code-block:: c 499 .. code-block:: c
551 500
552 int fun(int a) 501 int fun(int a)
553 { 502 {
554 int result = 0; 503 int result = 0;
555 char *buffer; 504 char *buffer;
556 505
557 buffer = kmalloc(SIZE, GFP_KER 506 buffer = kmalloc(SIZE, GFP_KERNEL);
558 if (!buffer) 507 if (!buffer)
559 return -ENOMEM; 508 return -ENOMEM;
560 509
561 if (condition1) { 510 if (condition1) {
562 while (loop1) { 511 while (loop1) {
563 ... 512 ...
564 } 513 }
565 result = 1; 514 result = 1;
566 goto out_free_buffer; 515 goto out_free_buffer;
567 } 516 }
568 ... 517 ...
569 out_free_buffer: 518 out_free_buffer:
570 kfree(buffer); 519 kfree(buffer);
571 return result; 520 return result;
572 } 521 }
573 522
574 A common type of bug to be aware of is ``one e 523 A common type of bug to be aware of is ``one err bugs`` which look like this:
575 524
576 .. code-block:: c 525 .. code-block:: c
577 526
578 err: 527 err:
579 kfree(foo->bar); 528 kfree(foo->bar);
580 kfree(foo); 529 kfree(foo);
581 return ret; 530 return ret;
582 531
583 The bug in this code is that on some exit path 532 The bug in this code is that on some exit paths ``foo`` is NULL. Normally the
584 fix for this is to split it up into two error 533 fix for this is to split it up into two error labels ``err_free_bar:`` and
585 ``err_free_foo:``: 534 ``err_free_foo:``:
586 535
587 .. code-block:: c 536 .. code-block:: c
588 537
589 err_free_bar: !! 538 err_free_bar:
590 kfree(foo->bar); 539 kfree(foo->bar);
591 err_free_foo: !! 540 err_free_foo:
592 kfree(foo); 541 kfree(foo);
593 return ret; 542 return ret;
594 543
595 Ideally you should simulate errors to test all 544 Ideally you should simulate errors to test all exit paths.
596 545
597 546
598 8) Commenting 547 8) Commenting
599 ------------- 548 -------------
600 549
601 Comments are good, but there is also a danger 550 Comments are good, but there is also a danger of over-commenting. NEVER
602 try to explain HOW your code works in a commen 551 try to explain HOW your code works in a comment: it's much better to
603 write the code so that the **working** is obvi 552 write the code so that the **working** is obvious, and it's a waste of
604 time to explain badly written code. 553 time to explain badly written code.
605 554
606 Generally, you want your comments to tell WHAT 555 Generally, you want your comments to tell WHAT your code does, not HOW.
607 Also, try to avoid putting comments inside a f 556 Also, try to avoid putting comments inside a function body: if the
608 function is so complex that you need to separa 557 function is so complex that you need to separately comment parts of it,
609 you should probably go back to chapter 6 for a 558 you should probably go back to chapter 6 for a while. You can make
610 small comments to note or warn about something 559 small comments to note or warn about something particularly clever (or
611 ugly), but try to avoid excess. Instead, put 560 ugly), but try to avoid excess. Instead, put the comments at the head
612 of the function, telling people what it does, 561 of the function, telling people what it does, and possibly WHY it does
613 it. 562 it.
614 563
615 When commenting the kernel API functions, plea 564 When commenting the kernel API functions, please use the kernel-doc format.
616 See the files at :ref:`Documentation/doc-guide 565 See the files at :ref:`Documentation/doc-guide/ <doc_guide>` and
617 ``scripts/kernel-doc`` for details. 566 ``scripts/kernel-doc`` for details.
618 567
619 The preferred style for long (multi-line) comm 568 The preferred style for long (multi-line) comments is:
620 569
621 .. code-block:: c 570 .. code-block:: c
622 571
623 /* 572 /*
624 * This is the preferred style for mul 573 * This is the preferred style for multi-line
625 * comments in the Linux kernel source 574 * comments in the Linux kernel source code.
626 * Please use it consistently. 575 * Please use it consistently.
627 * 576 *
628 * Description: A column of asterisks 577 * Description: A column of asterisks on the left side,
629 * with beginning and ending almost-bl 578 * with beginning and ending almost-blank lines.
630 */ 579 */
631 580
>> 581 For files in net/ and drivers/net/ the preferred style for long (multi-line)
>> 582 comments is a little different.
>> 583
>> 584 .. code-block:: c
>> 585
>> 586 /* The preferred comment style for files in net/ and drivers/net
>> 587 * looks like this.
>> 588 *
>> 589 * It is nearly the same as the generally preferred comment style,
>> 590 * but there is no initial almost-blank line.
>> 591 */
>> 592
632 It's also important to comment data, whether t 593 It's also important to comment data, whether they are basic types or derived
633 types. To this end, use just one data declara 594 types. To this end, use just one data declaration per line (no commas for
634 multiple data declarations). This leaves you 595 multiple data declarations). This leaves you room for a small comment on each
635 item, explaining its use. 596 item, explaining its use.
636 597
637 598
638 9) You've made a mess of it 599 9) You've made a mess of it
639 --------------------------- 600 ---------------------------
640 601
641 That's OK, we all do. You've probably been to 602 That's OK, we all do. You've probably been told by your long-time Unix
642 user helper that ``GNU emacs`` automatically f 603 user helper that ``GNU emacs`` automatically formats the C sources for
643 you, and you've noticed that yes, it does do t 604 you, and you've noticed that yes, it does do that, but the defaults it
644 uses are less than desirable (in fact, they ar 605 uses are less than desirable (in fact, they are worse than random
645 typing - an infinite number of monkeys typing 606 typing - an infinite number of monkeys typing into GNU emacs would never
646 make a good program). 607 make a good program).
647 608
648 So, you can either get rid of GNU emacs, or ch 609 So, you can either get rid of GNU emacs, or change it to use saner
649 values. To do the latter, you can stick the f 610 values. To do the latter, you can stick the following in your .emacs file:
650 611
651 .. code-block:: elisp !! 612 .. code-block:: none
652 613
653 (defun c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only (ignored) 614 (defun c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only (ignored)
654 "Line up argument lists by tabs, not space 615 "Line up argument lists by tabs, not spaces"
655 (let* ((anchor (c-langelem-pos c-syntactic 616 (let* ((anchor (c-langelem-pos c-syntactic-element))
656 (column (c-langelem-2nd-pos c-synta 617 (column (c-langelem-2nd-pos c-syntactic-element))
657 (offset (- (1+ column) anchor)) 618 (offset (- (1+ column) anchor))
658 (steps (floor offset c-basic-offset 619 (steps (floor offset c-basic-offset)))
659 (* (max steps 1) 620 (* (max steps 1)
660 c-basic-offset))) 621 c-basic-offset)))
661 622
662 (dir-locals-set-class-variables 623 (dir-locals-set-class-variables
663 'linux-kernel 624 'linux-kernel
664 '((c-mode . ( 625 '((c-mode . (
665 (c-basic-offset . 8) 626 (c-basic-offset . 8)
666 (c-label-minimum-indentation . 0) 627 (c-label-minimum-indentation . 0)
667 (c-offsets-alist . ( 628 (c-offsets-alist . (
668 (arglist-close . c-l 629 (arglist-close . c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only)
669 (arglist-cont-nonempty . 630 (arglist-cont-nonempty .
670 (c-lineup-gcc-asm-reg c- !! 631 (c-lineup-gcc-asm-reg c-lineup-arglist-tabs-only))
671 (arglist-intro . +) 632 (arglist-intro . +)
672 (brace-list-intro . +) 633 (brace-list-intro . +)
673 (c . c-l 634 (c . c-lineup-C-comments)
674 (case-label . 0) 635 (case-label . 0)
675 (comment-intro . c-l 636 (comment-intro . c-lineup-comment)
676 (cpp-define-intro . +) 637 (cpp-define-intro . +)
677 (cpp-macro . -10 638 (cpp-macro . -1000)
678 (cpp-macro-cont . +) 639 (cpp-macro-cont . +)
679 (defun-block-intro . +) 640 (defun-block-intro . +)
680 (else-clause . 0) 641 (else-clause . 0)
681 (func-decl-cont . +) 642 (func-decl-cont . +)
682 (inclass . +) 643 (inclass . +)
683 (inher-cont . c-l 644 (inher-cont . c-lineup-multi-inher)
684 (knr-argdecl-intro . 0) 645 (knr-argdecl-intro . 0)
685 (label . -10 646 (label . -1000)
686 (statement . 0) 647 (statement . 0)
687 (statement-block-intro . +) 648 (statement-block-intro . +)
688 (statement-case-intro . +) 649 (statement-case-intro . +)
689 (statement-cont . +) 650 (statement-cont . +)
690 (substatement . +) 651 (substatement . +)
691 )) 652 ))
692 (indent-tabs-mode . t) 653 (indent-tabs-mode . t)
693 (show-trailing-whitespace . t) 654 (show-trailing-whitespace . t)
694 )))) 655 ))))
695 656
696 (dir-locals-set-directory-class 657 (dir-locals-set-directory-class
697 (expand-file-name "~/src/linux-trees") 658 (expand-file-name "~/src/linux-trees")
698 'linux-kernel) 659 'linux-kernel)
699 660
700 This will make emacs go better with the kernel 661 This will make emacs go better with the kernel coding style for C
701 files below ``~/src/linux-trees``. 662 files below ``~/src/linux-trees``.
702 663
703 But even if you fail in getting emacs to do sa 664 But even if you fail in getting emacs to do sane formatting, not
704 everything is lost: use ``indent``. 665 everything is lost: use ``indent``.
705 666
706 Now, again, GNU indent has the same brain-dead 667 Now, again, GNU indent has the same brain-dead settings that GNU emacs
707 has, which is why you need to give it a few co 668 has, which is why you need to give it a few command line options.
708 However, that's not too bad, because even the 669 However, that's not too bad, because even the makers of GNU indent
709 recognize the authority of K&R (the GNU people 670 recognize the authority of K&R (the GNU people aren't evil, they are
710 just severely misguided in this matter), so yo 671 just severely misguided in this matter), so you just give indent the
711 options ``-kr -i8`` (stands for ``K&R, 8 chara 672 options ``-kr -i8`` (stands for ``K&R, 8 character indents``), or use
712 ``scripts/Lindent``, which indents in the late 673 ``scripts/Lindent``, which indents in the latest style.
713 674
714 ``indent`` has a lot of options, and especiall 675 ``indent`` has a lot of options, and especially when it comes to comment
715 re-formatting you may want to take a look at t 676 re-formatting you may want to take a look at the man page. But
716 remember: ``indent`` is not a fix for bad prog 677 remember: ``indent`` is not a fix for bad programming.
717 678
718 Note that you can also use the ``clang-format` 679 Note that you can also use the ``clang-format`` tool to help you with
719 these rules, to quickly re-format parts of you 680 these rules, to quickly re-format parts of your code automatically,
720 and to review full files in order to spot codi 681 and to review full files in order to spot coding style mistakes,
721 typos and possible improvements. It is also ha 682 typos and possible improvements. It is also handy for sorting ``#includes``,
722 for aligning variables/macros, for reflowing t 683 for aligning variables/macros, for reflowing text and other similar tasks.
723 See the file :ref:`Documentation/dev-tools/cla !! 684 See the file :ref:`Documentation/process/clang-format.rst <clangformat>`
724 for more details. 685 for more details.
725 686
726 Some basic editor settings, such as indentatio <<
727 set automatically if you are using an editor t <<
728 EditorConfig. See the official EditorConfig we <<
729 https://editorconfig.org/ <<
730 687
731 10) Kconfig configuration files 688 10) Kconfig configuration files
732 ------------------------------- 689 -------------------------------
733 690
734 For all of the Kconfig* configuration files th 691 For all of the Kconfig* configuration files throughout the source tree,
735 the indentation is somewhat different. Lines 692 the indentation is somewhat different. Lines under a ``config`` definition
736 are indented with one tab, while help text is 693 are indented with one tab, while help text is indented an additional two
737 spaces. Example:: 694 spaces. Example::
738 695
739 config AUDIT 696 config AUDIT
740 bool "Auditing support" 697 bool "Auditing support"
741 depends on NET 698 depends on NET
742 help 699 help
743 Enable auditing infrastructure that 700 Enable auditing infrastructure that can be used with another
744 kernel subsystem, such as SELinux (w 701 kernel subsystem, such as SELinux (which requires this for
745 logging of avc messages output). Do 702 logging of avc messages output). Does not do system-call
746 auditing without CONFIG_AUDITSYSCALL 703 auditing without CONFIG_AUDITSYSCALL.
747 704
748 Seriously dangerous features (such as write su 705 Seriously dangerous features (such as write support for certain
749 filesystems) should advertise this prominently 706 filesystems) should advertise this prominently in their prompt string::
750 707
751 config ADFS_FS_RW 708 config ADFS_FS_RW
752 bool "ADFS write support (DANGEROUS)" 709 bool "ADFS write support (DANGEROUS)"
753 depends on ADFS_FS 710 depends on ADFS_FS
754 ... 711 ...
755 712
756 For full documentation on the configuration fi 713 For full documentation on the configuration files, see the file
757 Documentation/kbuild/kconfig-language.rst. 714 Documentation/kbuild/kconfig-language.rst.
758 715
759 716
760 11) Data structures 717 11) Data structures
761 ------------------- 718 -------------------
762 719
763 Data structures that have visibility outside t 720 Data structures that have visibility outside the single-threaded
764 environment they are created and destroyed in 721 environment they are created and destroyed in should always have
765 reference counts. In the kernel, garbage coll 722 reference counts. In the kernel, garbage collection doesn't exist (and
766 outside the kernel garbage collection is slow 723 outside the kernel garbage collection is slow and inefficient), which
767 means that you absolutely **have** to referenc 724 means that you absolutely **have** to reference count all your uses.
768 725
769 Reference counting means that you can avoid lo 726 Reference counting means that you can avoid locking, and allows multiple
770 users to have access to the data structure in 727 users to have access to the data structure in parallel - and not having
771 to worry about the structure suddenly going aw 728 to worry about the structure suddenly going away from under them just
772 because they slept or did something else for a 729 because they slept or did something else for a while.
773 730
774 Note that locking is **not** a replacement for 731 Note that locking is **not** a replacement for reference counting.
775 Locking is used to keep data structures cohere 732 Locking is used to keep data structures coherent, while reference
776 counting is a memory management technique. Us 733 counting is a memory management technique. Usually both are needed, and
777 they are not to be confused with each other. 734 they are not to be confused with each other.
778 735
779 Many data structures can indeed have two level 736 Many data structures can indeed have two levels of reference counting,
780 when there are users of different ``classes``. 737 when there are users of different ``classes``. The subclass count counts
781 the number of subclass users, and decrements t 738 the number of subclass users, and decrements the global count just once
782 when the subclass count goes to zero. 739 when the subclass count goes to zero.
783 740
784 Examples of this kind of ``multi-level-referen 741 Examples of this kind of ``multi-level-reference-counting`` can be found in
785 memory management (``struct mm_struct``: mm_us 742 memory management (``struct mm_struct``: mm_users and mm_count), and in
786 filesystem code (``struct super_block``: s_cou 743 filesystem code (``struct super_block``: s_count and s_active).
787 744
788 Remember: if another thread can find your data 745 Remember: if another thread can find your data structure, and you don't
789 have a reference count on it, you almost certa 746 have a reference count on it, you almost certainly have a bug.
790 747
791 748
792 12) Macros, Enums and RTL 749 12) Macros, Enums and RTL
793 ------------------------- 750 -------------------------
794 751
795 Names of macros defining constants and labels 752 Names of macros defining constants and labels in enums are capitalized.
796 753
797 .. code-block:: c 754 .. code-block:: c
798 755
799 #define CONSTANT 0x12345 756 #define CONSTANT 0x12345
800 757
801 Enums are preferred when defining several rela 758 Enums are preferred when defining several related constants.
802 759
803 CAPITALIZED macro names are appreciated but ma 760 CAPITALIZED macro names are appreciated but macros resembling functions
804 may be named in lower case. 761 may be named in lower case.
805 762
806 Generally, inline functions are preferable to 763 Generally, inline functions are preferable to macros resembling functions.
807 764
808 Macros with multiple statements should be encl 765 Macros with multiple statements should be enclosed in a do - while block:
809 766
810 .. code-block:: c 767 .. code-block:: c
811 768
812 #define macrofun(a, b, c) 769 #define macrofun(a, b, c) \
813 do { 770 do { \
814 if (a == 5) 771 if (a == 5) \
815 do_this(b, c); 772 do_this(b, c); \
816 } while (0) 773 } while (0)
817 774
818 Function-like macros with unused parameters sh <<
819 inline functions to avoid the issue of unused <<
820 <<
821 .. code-block:: c <<
822 <<
823 static inline void fun(struct foo *foo <<
824 { <<
825 } <<
826 <<
827 Due to historical practices, many files still <<
828 approach to evaluate parameters. However, this <<
829 Inline functions address the issue of "express <<
830 evaluated more than once", circumvent unused-v <<
831 are generally better documented than macros fo <<
832 <<
833 .. code-block:: c <<
834 <<
835 /* <<
836 * Avoid doing this whenever possible <<
837 * inline functions <<
838 */ <<
839 #define macrofun(foo) do { (void) (foo <<
840 <<
841 Things to avoid when using macros: 775 Things to avoid when using macros:
842 776
843 1) macros that affect control flow: 777 1) macros that affect control flow:
844 778
845 .. code-block:: c 779 .. code-block:: c
846 780
847 #define FOO(x) 781 #define FOO(x) \
848 do { 782 do { \
849 if (blah(x) < 0) 783 if (blah(x) < 0) \
850 return -EBUGGE 784 return -EBUGGERED; \
851 } while (0) 785 } while (0)
852 786
853 is a **very** bad idea. It looks like a funct 787 is a **very** bad idea. It looks like a function call but exits the ``calling``
854 function; don't break the internal parsers of 788 function; don't break the internal parsers of those who will read the code.
855 789
856 2) macros that depend on having a local variab 790 2) macros that depend on having a local variable with a magic name:
857 791
858 .. code-block:: c 792 .. code-block:: c
859 793
860 #define FOO(val) bar(index, val) 794 #define FOO(val) bar(index, val)
861 795
862 might look like a good thing, but it's confusi 796 might look like a good thing, but it's confusing as hell when one reads the
863 code and it's prone to breakage from seemingly 797 code and it's prone to breakage from seemingly innocent changes.
864 798
865 3) macros with arguments that are used as l-va 799 3) macros with arguments that are used as l-values: FOO(x) = y; will
866 bite you if somebody e.g. turns FOO into an in 800 bite you if somebody e.g. turns FOO into an inline function.
867 801
868 4) forgetting about precedence: macros definin 802 4) forgetting about precedence: macros defining constants using expressions
869 must enclose the expression in parentheses. Be 803 must enclose the expression in parentheses. Beware of similar issues with
870 macros using parameters. 804 macros using parameters.
871 805
872 .. code-block:: c 806 .. code-block:: c
873 807
874 #define CONSTANT 0x4000 808 #define CONSTANT 0x4000
875 #define CONSTEXP (CONSTANT | 3) 809 #define CONSTEXP (CONSTANT | 3)
876 810
877 5) namespace collisions when defining local va 811 5) namespace collisions when defining local variables in macros resembling
878 functions: 812 functions:
879 813
880 .. code-block:: c 814 .. code-block:: c
881 815
882 #define FOO(x) 816 #define FOO(x) \
883 ({ 817 ({ \
884 typeof(x) ret; 818 typeof(x) ret; \
885 ret = calc_ret(x); 819 ret = calc_ret(x); \
886 (ret); 820 (ret); \
887 }) 821 })
888 822
889 ret is a common name for a local variable - __ 823 ret is a common name for a local variable - __foo_ret is less likely
890 to collide with an existing variable. 824 to collide with an existing variable.
891 825
892 The cpp manual deals with macros exhaustively. 826 The cpp manual deals with macros exhaustively. The gcc internals manual also
893 covers RTL which is used frequently with assem 827 covers RTL which is used frequently with assembly language in the kernel.
894 828
895 829
896 13) Printing kernel messages 830 13) Printing kernel messages
897 ---------------------------- 831 ----------------------------
898 832
899 Kernel developers like to be seen as literate. 833 Kernel developers like to be seen as literate. Do mind the spelling
900 of kernel messages to make a good impression. 834 of kernel messages to make a good impression. Do not use incorrect
901 contractions like ``dont``; use ``do not`` or 835 contractions like ``dont``; use ``do not`` or ``don't`` instead. Make the
902 messages concise, clear, and unambiguous. 836 messages concise, clear, and unambiguous.
903 837
904 Kernel messages do not have to be terminated w 838 Kernel messages do not have to be terminated with a period.
905 839
906 Printing numbers in parentheses (%d) adds no v 840 Printing numbers in parentheses (%d) adds no value and should be avoided.
907 841
908 There are a number of driver model diagnostic !! 842 There are a number of driver model diagnostic macros in <linux/device.h>
909 which you should use to make sure messages are 843 which you should use to make sure messages are matched to the right device
910 and driver, and are tagged with the right leve 844 and driver, and are tagged with the right level: dev_err(), dev_warn(),
911 dev_info(), and so forth. For messages that a 845 dev_info(), and so forth. For messages that aren't associated with a
912 particular device, <linux/printk.h> defines pr 846 particular device, <linux/printk.h> defines pr_notice(), pr_info(),
913 pr_warn(), pr_err(), etc. When drivers are wor !! 847 pr_warn(), pr_err(), etc.
914 so prefer to use dev_dbg/pr_debug unless somet <<
915 848
916 Coming up with good debugging messages can be 849 Coming up with good debugging messages can be quite a challenge; and once
917 you have them, they can be a huge help for rem 850 you have them, they can be a huge help for remote troubleshooting. However
918 debug message printing is handled differently 851 debug message printing is handled differently than printing other non-debug
919 messages. While the other pr_XXX() functions 852 messages. While the other pr_XXX() functions print unconditionally,
920 pr_debug() does not; it is compiled out by def 853 pr_debug() does not; it is compiled out by default, unless either DEBUG is
921 defined or CONFIG_DYNAMIC_DEBUG is set. That 854 defined or CONFIG_DYNAMIC_DEBUG is set. That is true for dev_dbg() also,
922 and a related convention uses VERBOSE_DEBUG to 855 and a related convention uses VERBOSE_DEBUG to add dev_vdbg() messages to
923 the ones already enabled by DEBUG. 856 the ones already enabled by DEBUG.
924 857
925 Many subsystems have Kconfig debug options to 858 Many subsystems have Kconfig debug options to turn on -DDEBUG in the
926 corresponding Makefile; in other cases specifi 859 corresponding Makefile; in other cases specific files #define DEBUG. And
927 when a debug message should be unconditionally 860 when a debug message should be unconditionally printed, such as if it is
928 already inside a debug-related #ifdef section, 861 already inside a debug-related #ifdef section, printk(KERN_DEBUG ...) can be
929 used. 862 used.
930 863
931 864
932 14) Allocating memory 865 14) Allocating memory
933 --------------------- 866 ---------------------
934 867
935 The kernel provides the following general purp 868 The kernel provides the following general purpose memory allocators:
936 kmalloc(), kzalloc(), kmalloc_array(), kcalloc 869 kmalloc(), kzalloc(), kmalloc_array(), kcalloc(), vmalloc(), and
937 vzalloc(). Please refer to the API documentat 870 vzalloc(). Please refer to the API documentation for further information
938 about them. :ref:`Documentation/core-api/memo 871 about them. :ref:`Documentation/core-api/memory-allocation.rst
939 <memory_allocation>` 872 <memory_allocation>`
940 873
941 The preferred form for passing a size of a str 874 The preferred form for passing a size of a struct is the following:
942 875
943 .. code-block:: c 876 .. code-block:: c
944 877
945 p = kmalloc(sizeof(*p), ...); 878 p = kmalloc(sizeof(*p), ...);
946 879
947 The alternative form where struct name is spel 880 The alternative form where struct name is spelled out hurts readability and
948 introduces an opportunity for a bug when the p 881 introduces an opportunity for a bug when the pointer variable type is changed
949 but the corresponding sizeof that is passed to 882 but the corresponding sizeof that is passed to a memory allocator is not.
950 883
951 Casting the return value which is a void point 884 Casting the return value which is a void pointer is redundant. The conversion
952 from void pointer to any other pointer type is 885 from void pointer to any other pointer type is guaranteed by the C programming
953 language. 886 language.
954 887
955 The preferred form for allocating an array is 888 The preferred form for allocating an array is the following:
956 889
957 .. code-block:: c 890 .. code-block:: c
958 891
959 p = kmalloc_array(n, sizeof(...), ...) 892 p = kmalloc_array(n, sizeof(...), ...);
960 893
961 The preferred form for allocating a zeroed arr 894 The preferred form for allocating a zeroed array is the following:
962 895
963 .. code-block:: c 896 .. code-block:: c
964 897
965 p = kcalloc(n, sizeof(...), ...); 898 p = kcalloc(n, sizeof(...), ...);
966 899
967 Both forms check for overflow on the allocatio 900 Both forms check for overflow on the allocation size n * sizeof(...),
968 and return NULL if that occurred. 901 and return NULL if that occurred.
969 902
970 These generic allocation functions all emit a 903 These generic allocation functions all emit a stack dump on failure when used
971 without __GFP_NOWARN so there is no use in emi 904 without __GFP_NOWARN so there is no use in emitting an additional failure
972 message when NULL is returned. 905 message when NULL is returned.
973 906
974 15) The inline disease 907 15) The inline disease
975 ---------------------- 908 ----------------------
976 909
977 There appears to be a common misperception tha 910 There appears to be a common misperception that gcc has a magic "make me
978 faster" speedup option called ``inline``. Whil 911 faster" speedup option called ``inline``. While the use of inlines can be
979 appropriate (for example as a means of replaci 912 appropriate (for example as a means of replacing macros, see Chapter 12), it
980 very often is not. Abundant use of the inline 913 very often is not. Abundant use of the inline keyword leads to a much bigger
981 kernel, which in turn slows the system as a wh 914 kernel, which in turn slows the system as a whole down, due to a bigger
982 icache footprint for the CPU and simply becaus 915 icache footprint for the CPU and simply because there is less memory
983 available for the pagecache. Just think about 916 available for the pagecache. Just think about it; a pagecache miss causes a
984 disk seek, which easily takes 5 milliseconds. 917 disk seek, which easily takes 5 milliseconds. There are a LOT of cpu cycles
985 that can go into these 5 milliseconds. 918 that can go into these 5 milliseconds.
986 919
987 A reasonable rule of thumb is to not put inlin 920 A reasonable rule of thumb is to not put inline at functions that have more
988 than 3 lines of code in them. An exception to 921 than 3 lines of code in them. An exception to this rule are the cases where
989 a parameter is known to be a compiletime const 922 a parameter is known to be a compiletime constant, and as a result of this
990 constantness you *know* the compiler will be a 923 constantness you *know* the compiler will be able to optimize most of your
991 function away at compile time. For a good exam 924 function away at compile time. For a good example of this later case, see
992 the kmalloc() inline function. 925 the kmalloc() inline function.
993 926
994 Often people argue that adding inline to funct 927 Often people argue that adding inline to functions that are static and used
995 only once is always a win since there is no sp 928 only once is always a win since there is no space tradeoff. While this is
996 technically correct, gcc is capable of inlinin 929 technically correct, gcc is capable of inlining these automatically without
997 help, and the maintenance issue of removing th 930 help, and the maintenance issue of removing the inline when a second user
998 appears outweighs the potential value of the h 931 appears outweighs the potential value of the hint that tells gcc to do
999 something it would have done anyway. 932 something it would have done anyway.
1000 933
1001 934
1002 16) Function return values and names 935 16) Function return values and names
1003 ------------------------------------ 936 ------------------------------------
1004 937
1005 Functions can return values of many different 938 Functions can return values of many different kinds, and one of the
1006 most common is a value indicating whether the 939 most common is a value indicating whether the function succeeded or
1007 failed. Such a value can be represented as a 940 failed. Such a value can be represented as an error-code integer
1008 (-Exxx = failure, 0 = success) or a ``succeed 941 (-Exxx = failure, 0 = success) or a ``succeeded`` boolean (0 = failure,
1009 non-zero = success). 942 non-zero = success).
1010 943
1011 Mixing up these two sorts of representations 944 Mixing up these two sorts of representations is a fertile source of
1012 difficult-to-find bugs. If the C language in 945 difficult-to-find bugs. If the C language included a strong distinction
1013 between integers and booleans then the compil 946 between integers and booleans then the compiler would find these mistakes
1014 for us... but it doesn't. To help prevent su 947 for us... but it doesn't. To help prevent such bugs, always follow this
1015 convention:: 948 convention::
1016 949
1017 If the name of a function is an actio 950 If the name of a function is an action or an imperative command,
1018 the function should return an error-c 951 the function should return an error-code integer. If the name
1019 is a predicate, the function should r 952 is a predicate, the function should return a "succeeded" boolean.
1020 953
1021 For example, ``add work`` is a command, and t 954 For example, ``add work`` is a command, and the add_work() function returns 0
1022 for success or -EBUSY for failure. In the sa 955 for success or -EBUSY for failure. In the same way, ``PCI device present`` is
1023 a predicate, and the pci_dev_present() functi 956 a predicate, and the pci_dev_present() function returns 1 if it succeeds in
1024 finding a matching device or 0 if it doesn't. 957 finding a matching device or 0 if it doesn't.
1025 958
1026 All EXPORTed functions must respect this conv 959 All EXPORTed functions must respect this convention, and so should all
1027 public functions. Private (static) functions 960 public functions. Private (static) functions need not, but it is
1028 recommended that they do. 961 recommended that they do.
1029 962
1030 Functions whose return value is the actual re 963 Functions whose return value is the actual result of a computation, rather
1031 than an indication of whether the computation 964 than an indication of whether the computation succeeded, are not subject to
1032 this rule. Generally they indicate failure b 965 this rule. Generally they indicate failure by returning some out-of-range
1033 result. Typical examples would be functions 966 result. Typical examples would be functions that return pointers; they use
1034 NULL or the ERR_PTR mechanism to report failu 967 NULL or the ERR_PTR mechanism to report failure.
1035 968
1036 969
1037 17) Using bool 970 17) Using bool
1038 -------------- 971 --------------
1039 972
1040 The Linux kernel bool type is an alias for th 973 The Linux kernel bool type is an alias for the C99 _Bool type. bool values can
1041 only evaluate to 0 or 1, and implicit or expl 974 only evaluate to 0 or 1, and implicit or explicit conversion to bool
1042 automatically converts the value to true or f 975 automatically converts the value to true or false. When using bool types the
1043 !! construction is not needed, which eliminat 976 !! construction is not needed, which eliminates a class of bugs.
1044 977
1045 When working with bool values the true and fa 978 When working with bool values the true and false definitions should be used
1046 instead of 1 and 0. 979 instead of 1 and 0.
1047 980
1048 bool function return types and stack variable 981 bool function return types and stack variables are always fine to use whenever
1049 appropriate. Use of bool is encouraged to imp 982 appropriate. Use of bool is encouraged to improve readability and is often a
1050 better option than 'int' for storing boolean 983 better option than 'int' for storing boolean values.
1051 984
1052 Do not use bool if cache line layout or size 985 Do not use bool if cache line layout or size of the value matters, as its size
1053 and alignment varies based on the compiled ar 986 and alignment varies based on the compiled architecture. Structures that are
1054 optimized for alignment and size should not u 987 optimized for alignment and size should not use bool.
1055 988
1056 If a structure has many true/false values, co 989 If a structure has many true/false values, consider consolidating them into a
1057 bitfield with 1 bit members, or using an appr 990 bitfield with 1 bit members, or using an appropriate fixed width type, such as
1058 u8. 991 u8.
1059 992
1060 Similarly for function arguments, many true/f 993 Similarly for function arguments, many true/false values can be consolidated
1061 into a single bitwise 'flags' argument and 'f 994 into a single bitwise 'flags' argument and 'flags' can often be a more
1062 readable alternative if the call-sites have n 995 readable alternative if the call-sites have naked true/false constants.
1063 996
1064 Otherwise limited use of bool in structures a 997 Otherwise limited use of bool in structures and arguments can improve
1065 readability. 998 readability.
1066 999
1067 18) Don't re-invent the kernel macros 1000 18) Don't re-invent the kernel macros
1068 ------------------------------------- 1001 -------------------------------------
1069 1002
1070 The header file include/linux/kernel.h contai 1003 The header file include/linux/kernel.h contains a number of macros that
1071 you should use, rather than explicitly coding 1004 you should use, rather than explicitly coding some variant of them yourself.
1072 For example, if you need to calculate the len 1005 For example, if you need to calculate the length of an array, take advantage
1073 of the macro 1006 of the macro
1074 1007
1075 .. code-block:: c 1008 .. code-block:: c
1076 1009
1077 #define ARRAY_SIZE(x) (sizeof(x) / si 1010 #define ARRAY_SIZE(x) (sizeof(x) / sizeof((x)[0]))
1078 1011
1079 Similarly, if you need to calculate the size 1012 Similarly, if you need to calculate the size of some structure member, use
1080 1013
1081 .. code-block:: c 1014 .. code-block:: c
1082 1015
1083 #define sizeof_field(t, f) (sizeof((( 1016 #define sizeof_field(t, f) (sizeof(((t*)0)->f))
1084 1017
1085 There are also min() and max() macros that do 1018 There are also min() and max() macros that do strict type checking if you
1086 need them. Feel free to peruse that header f 1019 need them. Feel free to peruse that header file to see what else is already
1087 defined that you shouldn't reproduce in your 1020 defined that you shouldn't reproduce in your code.
1088 1021
1089 1022
1090 19) Editor modelines and other cruft 1023 19) Editor modelines and other cruft
1091 ------------------------------------ 1024 ------------------------------------
1092 1025
1093 Some editors can interpret configuration info 1026 Some editors can interpret configuration information embedded in source files,
1094 indicated with special markers. For example, 1027 indicated with special markers. For example, emacs interprets lines marked
1095 like this: 1028 like this:
1096 1029
1097 .. code-block:: c 1030 .. code-block:: c
1098 1031
1099 -*- mode: c -*- 1032 -*- mode: c -*-
1100 1033
1101 Or like this: 1034 Or like this:
1102 1035
1103 .. code-block:: c 1036 .. code-block:: c
1104 1037
1105 /* 1038 /*
1106 Local Variables: 1039 Local Variables:
1107 compile-command: "gcc -DMAGIC_DEBUG_F 1040 compile-command: "gcc -DMAGIC_DEBUG_FLAG foo.c"
1108 End: 1041 End:
1109 */ 1042 */
1110 1043
1111 Vim interprets markers that look like this: 1044 Vim interprets markers that look like this:
1112 1045
1113 .. code-block:: c 1046 .. code-block:: c
1114 1047
1115 /* vim:set sw=8 noet */ 1048 /* vim:set sw=8 noet */
1116 1049
1117 Do not include any of these in source files. 1050 Do not include any of these in source files. People have their own personal
1118 editor configurations, and your source files 1051 editor configurations, and your source files should not override them. This
1119 includes markers for indentation and mode con 1052 includes markers for indentation and mode configuration. People may use their
1120 own custom mode, or may have some other magic 1053 own custom mode, or may have some other magic method for making indentation
1121 work correctly. 1054 work correctly.
1122 1055
1123 1056
1124 20) Inline assembly 1057 20) Inline assembly
1125 ------------------- 1058 -------------------
1126 1059
1127 In architecture-specific code, you may need t 1060 In architecture-specific code, you may need to use inline assembly to interface
1128 with CPU or platform functionality. Don't he 1061 with CPU or platform functionality. Don't hesitate to do so when necessary.
1129 However, don't use inline assembly gratuitous 1062 However, don't use inline assembly gratuitously when C can do the job. You can
1130 and should poke hardware from C when possible 1063 and should poke hardware from C when possible.
1131 1064
1132 Consider writing simple helper functions that 1065 Consider writing simple helper functions that wrap common bits of inline
1133 assembly, rather than repeatedly writing them 1066 assembly, rather than repeatedly writing them with slight variations. Remember
1134 that inline assembly can use C parameters. 1067 that inline assembly can use C parameters.
1135 1068
1136 Large, non-trivial assembly functions should 1069 Large, non-trivial assembly functions should go in .S files, with corresponding
1137 C prototypes defined in C header files. The 1070 C prototypes defined in C header files. The C prototypes for assembly
1138 functions should use ``asmlinkage``. 1071 functions should use ``asmlinkage``.
1139 1072
1140 You may need to mark your asm statement as vo 1073 You may need to mark your asm statement as volatile, to prevent GCC from
1141 removing it if GCC doesn't notice any side ef 1074 removing it if GCC doesn't notice any side effects. You don't always need to
1142 do so, though, and doing so unnecessarily can 1075 do so, though, and doing so unnecessarily can limit optimization.
1143 1076
1144 When writing a single inline assembly stateme 1077 When writing a single inline assembly statement containing multiple
1145 instructions, put each instruction on a separ 1078 instructions, put each instruction on a separate line in a separate quoted
1146 string, and end each string except the last w 1079 string, and end each string except the last with ``\n\t`` to properly indent
1147 the next instruction in the assembly output: 1080 the next instruction in the assembly output:
1148 1081
1149 .. code-block:: c 1082 .. code-block:: c
1150 1083
1151 asm ("magic %reg1, #42\n\t" 1084 asm ("magic %reg1, #42\n\t"
1152 "more_magic %reg2, %reg3" 1085 "more_magic %reg2, %reg3"
1153 : /* outputs */ : /* inputs */ : 1086 : /* outputs */ : /* inputs */ : /* clobbers */);
1154 1087
1155 1088
1156 21) Conditional Compilation 1089 21) Conditional Compilation
1157 --------------------------- 1090 ---------------------------
1158 1091
1159 Wherever possible, don't use preprocessor con 1092 Wherever possible, don't use preprocessor conditionals (#if, #ifdef) in .c
1160 files; doing so makes code harder to read and 1093 files; doing so makes code harder to read and logic harder to follow. Instead,
1161 use such conditionals in a header file defini 1094 use such conditionals in a header file defining functions for use in those .c
1162 files, providing no-op stub versions in the # 1095 files, providing no-op stub versions in the #else case, and then call those
1163 functions unconditionally from .c files. The 1096 functions unconditionally from .c files. The compiler will avoid generating
1164 any code for the stub calls, producing identi 1097 any code for the stub calls, producing identical results, but the logic will
1165 remain easy to follow. 1098 remain easy to follow.
1166 1099
1167 Prefer to compile out entire functions, rathe 1100 Prefer to compile out entire functions, rather than portions of functions or
1168 portions of expressions. Rather than putting 1101 portions of expressions. Rather than putting an ifdef in an expression, factor
1169 out part or all of the expression into a sepa 1102 out part or all of the expression into a separate helper function and apply the
1170 conditional to that function. 1103 conditional to that function.
1171 1104
1172 If you have a function or variable which may 1105 If you have a function or variable which may potentially go unused in a
1173 particular configuration, and the compiler wo 1106 particular configuration, and the compiler would warn about its definition
1174 going unused, mark the definition as __maybe_ 1107 going unused, mark the definition as __maybe_unused rather than wrapping it in
1175 a preprocessor conditional. (However, if a f 1108 a preprocessor conditional. (However, if a function or variable *always* goes
1176 unused, delete it.) 1109 unused, delete it.)
1177 1110
1178 Within code, where possible, use the IS_ENABL 1111 Within code, where possible, use the IS_ENABLED macro to convert a Kconfig
1179 symbol into a C boolean expression, and use i 1112 symbol into a C boolean expression, and use it in a normal C conditional:
1180 1113
1181 .. code-block:: c 1114 .. code-block:: c
1182 1115
1183 if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_SOMETHING)) { 1116 if (IS_ENABLED(CONFIG_SOMETHING)) {
1184 ... 1117 ...
1185 } 1118 }
1186 1119
1187 The compiler will constant-fold the condition 1120 The compiler will constant-fold the conditional away, and include or exclude
1188 the block of code just as with an #ifdef, so 1121 the block of code just as with an #ifdef, so this will not add any runtime
1189 overhead. However, this approach still allow 1122 overhead. However, this approach still allows the C compiler to see the code
1190 inside the block, and check it for correctnes 1123 inside the block, and check it for correctness (syntax, types, symbol
1191 references, etc). Thus, you still have to us 1124 references, etc). Thus, you still have to use an #ifdef if the code inside the
1192 block references symbols that will not exist 1125 block references symbols that will not exist if the condition is not met.
1193 1126
1194 At the end of any non-trivial #if or #ifdef b 1127 At the end of any non-trivial #if or #ifdef block (more than a few lines),
1195 place a comment after the #endif on the same 1128 place a comment after the #endif on the same line, noting the conditional
1196 expression used. For instance: 1129 expression used. For instance:
1197 1130
1198 .. code-block:: c 1131 .. code-block:: c
1199 1132
1200 #ifdef CONFIG_SOMETHING 1133 #ifdef CONFIG_SOMETHING
1201 ... 1134 ...
1202 #endif /* CONFIG_SOMETHING */ 1135 #endif /* CONFIG_SOMETHING */
1203 1136
1204 1137
1205 22) Do not crash the kernel <<
1206 --------------------------- <<
1207 <<
1208 In general, the decision to crash the kernel <<
1209 than to the kernel developer. <<
1210 <<
1211 Avoid panic() <<
1212 ************* <<
1213 <<
1214 panic() should be used with care and primaril <<
1215 panic() is, for example, acceptable when runn <<
1216 not being able to continue. <<
1217 <<
1218 Use WARN() rather than BUG() <<
1219 **************************** <<
1220 <<
1221 Do not add new code that uses any of the BUG( <<
1222 BUG_ON(), or VM_BUG_ON(). Instead, use a WARN <<
1223 WARN_ON_ONCE(), and possibly with recovery co <<
1224 required if there is no reasonable way to at <<
1225 <<
1226 "I'm too lazy to do error handling" is not an <<
1227 internal corruptions with no way of continuin <<
1228 good justification. <<
1229 <<
1230 Use WARN_ON_ONCE() rather than WARN() or WARN <<
1231 ********************************************* <<
1232 <<
1233 WARN_ON_ONCE() is generally preferred over WA <<
1234 is common for a given warning condition, if i <<
1235 multiple times. This can fill up and wrap the <<
1236 the system enough that the excessive logging <<
1237 problem. <<
1238 <<
1239 Do not WARN lightly <<
1240 ******************* <<
1241 <<
1242 WARN*() is intended for unexpected, this-shou <<
1243 WARN*() macros are not to be used for anythin <<
1244 during normal operation. These are not pre- o <<
1245 example. Again: WARN*() must not be used for <<
1246 to trigger easily, for example, by user space <<
1247 possible alternative, if you need to notify t <<
1248 <<
1249 Do not worry about panic_on_warn users <<
1250 ************************************** <<
1251 <<
1252 A few more words about panic_on_warn: Remembe <<
1253 available kernel option, and that many users <<
1254 there is a "Do not WARN lightly" writeup, abo <<
1255 panic_on_warn users is not a valid reason to <<
1256 WARN*(). That is because, whoever enables pan <<
1257 asked the kernel to crash if a WARN*() fires, <<
1258 prepared to deal with the consequences of a s <<
1259 likely to crash. <<
1260 <<
1261 Use BUILD_BUG_ON() for compile-time assertion <<
1262 ********************************************* <<
1263 <<
1264 The use of BUILD_BUG_ON() is acceptable and e <<
1265 compile-time assertion that has no effect at <<
1266 <<
1267 Appendix I) References 1138 Appendix I) References
1268 ---------------------- 1139 ----------------------
1269 1140
1270 The C Programming Language, Second Edition 1141 The C Programming Language, Second Edition
1271 by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie. 1142 by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis M. Ritchie.
1272 Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988. 1143 Prentice Hall, Inc., 1988.
1273 ISBN 0-13-110362-8 (paperback), 0-13-110370-9 1144 ISBN 0-13-110362-8 (paperback), 0-13-110370-9 (hardback).
1274 1145
1275 The Practice of Programming 1146 The Practice of Programming
1276 by Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike. 1147 by Brian W. Kernighan and Rob Pike.
1277 Addison-Wesley, Inc., 1999. 1148 Addison-Wesley, Inc., 1999.
1278 ISBN 0-201-61586-X. 1149 ISBN 0-201-61586-X.
1279 1150
1280 GNU manuals - where in compliance with K&R an 1151 GNU manuals - where in compliance with K&R and this text - for cpp, gcc,
1281 gcc internals and indent, all available from 1152 gcc internals and indent, all available from https://www.gnu.org/manual/
1282 1153
1283 WG14 is the international standardization wor 1154 WG14 is the international standardization working group for the programming
1284 language C, URL: http://www.open-std.org/JTC1 1155 language C, URL: http://www.open-std.org/JTC1/SC22/WG14/
1285 1156
1286 Kernel CodingStyle, by greg@kroah.com at OLS !! 1157 Kernel :ref:`process/coding-style.rst <codingstyle>`, by greg@kroah.com at OLS 2002:
1287 http://www.kroah.com/linux/talks/ols_2002_ker 1158 http://www.kroah.com/linux/talks/ols_2002_kernel_codingstyle_talk/html/
Linux® is a registered trademark of Linus Torvalds in the United States and other countries.
TOMOYO® is a registered trademark of NTT DATA CORPORATION.